Changeset 32cab5b for doc/papers

doc/papers/concurrency/.gitignore

rb2fe1c9	r32cab5b
3	3	*.pdf
4	4	*.ps
	5
	6	Paper.out.ps
	7	WileyNJD-AMA.bst

doc/papers/concurrency/Makefile

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 Build = build
 Figures = figures
 Macros = ../../LaTeXmacros
 TeXLIB = .:style:annex:${Macros}:${Build}:../../bibliography:
+Macros = AMA/AMA-stix/ama
+TeXLIB = .:annex:../../LaTeXmacros:${Macros}:${Build}:../../bibliography:
 LaTeX  = TEXINPUTS=${TeXLIB} && export TEXINPUTS && latex -halt-on-error -output-directory=${Build}
 BibTeX = BIBINPUTS=${TeXLIB} && export BIBINPUTS && bibtex
 MAKEFLAGS = --no-print-directory --silent #
+MAKEFLAGS = --no-print-directory # --silent
 VPATH = ${Build} ${Figures}
 …
 DOCUMENT = Paper.pdf
+BASE = ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}
 # Directives #
 …
 clean :
         @rm -frv ${DOCUMENT} ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}.ps ${Build}
+        @rm -frv ${DOCUMENT} ${BASE}.ps WileyNJD-AMA.bst ${BASE}.out.ps ${Build}
 # File Dependencies #
 ${DOCUMENT} : ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}.ps
+${DOCUMENT} : ${BASE}.ps
         ps2pdf $<
 ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}.ps : ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}.dvi
+${BASE}.ps : ${BASE}.dvi
         dvips ${Build}/$< -o $@
 ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}.dvi : Makefile ${Build} ${GRAPHS} ${PROGRAMS} ${PICTURES} ${FIGURES} ${SOURCES} \
                 ${Macros}/common.tex ${Macros}/indexstyle annex/local.bib ../../bibliography/pl.bib
+${BASE}.dvi : Makefile ${Build} ${BASE}.out.ps WileyNJD-AMA.bst ${GRAPHS} ${PROGRAMS} ${PICTURES} ${FIGURES} ${SOURCES} \
+                annex/local.bib ../../bibliography/pl.bib
         # Must have *.aux file containing citations for bibtex
         if [ ! -r ${basename $@}.aux ] ; then ${LaTeX} ${basename $@}.tex ; fi
         -${BibTeX} ${Build}/${basename $@}
+        ${BibTeX} ${Build}/${basename $@}
         # Some citations reference others so run again to resolve these citations
         ${LaTeX} ${basename $@}.tex
         -${BibTeX} ${Build}/${basename $@}
+        ${BibTeX} ${Build}/${basename $@}
         # Run again to finish citations
         ${LaTeX} ${basename $@}.tex
 …
 ${Build}:
         mkdir -p ${Build}
+${BASE}.out.ps:
+        ln -fs build/Paper.out.ps .
+WileyNJD-AMA.bst:
+        ln -fs AMA/AMA-stix/ama/WileyNJD-AMA.bst .
 %.tex : %.fig

doc/papers/concurrency/Paper.tex

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
+% inline code ©...© (copyright symbol) emacs: C-q M-)
+% red highlighting ®...® (registered trademark symbol) emacs: C-q M-.
+% blue highlighting ß...ß (sharp s symbol) emacs: C-q M-_
+% green highlighting ¢...¢ (cent symbol) emacs: C-q M-"
+% LaTex escape §...§ (section symbol) emacs: C-q M-'
+% keyword escape ¶...¶ (pilcrow symbol) emacs: C-q M-^
+% math escape $...$ (dollar symbol)
 \documentclass[10pt]{article}
+\documentclass[AMA,STIX1COL]{WileyNJD-v2}
+\articletype{RESEARCH ARTICLE}%
+\received{26 April 2016}
+\revised{6 June 2016}
+\accepted{6 June 2016}
+\raggedbottom
 %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
 % Latex packages used in the document.
-\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}                                        % allow Latin1 (extended ASCII) characters
-\usepackage{textcomp}
-\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
-\usepackage{fullpage,times,comment}
 \usepackage{epic,eepic}
+\usepackage{xspace}
+\usepackage{comment}
 \usepackage{upquote}                                            % switch curled `'" to straight
+\usepackage{calc}
+\usepackage{xspace}
+\usepackage[labelformat=simple]{subfig}
+\usepackage{listings}                                           % format program code
+\usepackage[labelformat=simple,aboveskip=0pt,farskip=0pt]{subfig}
 \renewcommand{\thesubfigure}{(\alph{subfigure})}
 \usepackage{graphicx}
 \usepackage{tabularx}
+\usepackage{multicol}
+\usepackage{varioref}
 \usepackage{listings}                                           % format program code
 \usepackage[flushmargin]{footmisc}                              % support label/reference in footnote
 \usepackage{latexsym}                                           % \Box glyph
 \usepackage{mathptmx}                                           % better math font with "times"
+\usepackage[usenames]{color}
+\usepackage{siunitx}
+\sisetup{ binary-units=true }
+%\input{style}                                                          % bespoke macros used in the document
+\hypersetup{breaklinks=true}
+\definecolor{OliveGreen}{cmyk}{0.64 0 0.95 0.40}
+\definecolor{Mahogany}{cmyk}{0 0.85 0.87 0.35}
+\definecolor{Plum}{cmyk}{0.50 1 0 0}
 \usepackage[pagewise]{lineno}
 \renewcommand{\linenumberfont}{\scriptsize\sffamily}
+\usepackage{fancyhdr}
+\usepackage{float}
+\usepackage{siunitx}
+\sisetup{ binary-units=true }
+\input{style}                                                   % bespoke macros used in the document
+\usepackage{url}
+\usepackage[dvips,plainpages=false,pdfpagelabels,pdfpagemode=UseNone,colorlinks=true,pagebackref=true,linkcolor=blue,citecolor=blue,urlcolor=blue,pagebackref=true,breaklinks=true]{hyperref}
+\usepackage{breakurl}
+\urlstyle{rm}
+\setlength{\topmargin}{-0.45in}                         % move running title into header
+\setlength{\headsep}{0.25in}
+\lefthyphenmin=4                                                        % hyphen only after 4 characters
+\righthyphenmin=4
 %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
 …
 % Names used in the document.
+\newcommand{\Version}{1.0.0}
+\newcommand{\CS}{C\raisebox{-0.9ex}{\large$^\sharp$}\xspace}
+\newcommand{\CFAIcon}{\textsf{C}\raisebox{\depth}{\rotatebox{180}{\textsf{A}}}\xspace} % Cforall symbolic name
+\newcommand{\CFA}{\protect\CFAIcon}             % safe for section/caption
+\newcommand{\CFL}{\textrm{Cforall}\xspace}      % Cforall symbolic name
+\newcommand{\Celeven}{\textrm{C11}\xspace}      % C11 symbolic name
+\newcommand{\CC}{\textrm{C}\kern-.1em\hbox{+\kern-.25em+}\xspace} % C++ symbolic name
+\newcommand{\CCeleven}{\textrm{C}\kern-.1em\hbox{+\kern-.25em+}11\xspace} % C++11 symbolic name
+\newcommand{\CCfourteen}{\textrm{C}\kern-.1em\hbox{+\kern-.25em+}14\xspace} % C++14 symbolic name
+\newcommand{\CCseventeen}{\textrm{C}\kern-.1em\hbox{+\kern-.25em+}17\xspace} % C++17 symbolic name
+\newcommand{\CCtwenty}{\textrm{C}\kern-.1em\hbox{+\kern-.25em+}20\xspace} % C++20 symbolic name
+\newcommand{\Csharp}{C\raisebox{-0.7ex}{\Large$^\sharp$}\xspace} % C# symbolic name
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
 \newcommand{\Textbf}[2][red]{{\color{#1}{\textbf{#2}}}}
 …
 \newcommand{\TODO}{{\Textbf{TODO}}}
-\newsavebox{\LstBox}
 %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+\setcounter{secnumdepth}{2}                           % number subsubsections
+\setcounter{tocdepth}{2}                              % subsubsections in table of contents
+% \linenumbers                                          % comment out to turn off line numbering
+\title{Concurrency in \CFA}
+\author{Thierry Delisle and Peter A. Buhr, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada}
+% Default underscore is too low and wide. Cannot use lstlisting "literate" as replacing underscore
+% removes it as a variable-name character so keywords in variables are highlighted. MUST APPEAR
+% AFTER HYPERREF.
+%\DeclareTextCommandDefault{\textunderscore}{\leavevmode\makebox[1.2ex][c]{\rule{1ex}{0.1ex}}}
+\renewcommand{\textunderscore}{\leavevmode\makebox[1.2ex][c]{\rule{1ex}{0.075ex}}}
+\makeatletter
+% parindent is relative, i.e., toggled on/off in environments like itemize, so store the value for
+% use rather than use \parident directly.
+\newlength{\parindentlnth}
+\setlength{\parindentlnth}{\parindent}
+\newcommand{\LstBasicStyle}[1]{{\lst@basicstyle{\lst@basicstyle{#1}}}}
+\newcommand{\LstKeywordStyle}[1]{{\lst@basicstyle{\lst@keywordstyle{#1}}}}
+\newcommand{\LstCommentStyle}[1]{{\lst@basicstyle{\lst@commentstyle{#1}}}}
+\newlength{\gcolumnposn}                                        % temporary hack because lstlisting does not handle tabs correctly
+\newlength{\columnposn}
+\setlength{\gcolumnposn}{3.5in}
+\setlength{\columnposn}{\gcolumnposn}
+\newcommand{\C}[2][\@empty]{\ifx#1\@empty\else\global\setlength{\columnposn}{#1}\global\columnposn=\columnposn\fi\hfill\makebox[\textwidth-\columnposn][l]{\lst@basicstyle{\LstCommentStyle{#2}}}}
+\newcommand{\CRT}{\global\columnposn=\gcolumnposn}
+% Denote newterms in particular font and index them without particular font and in lowercase, e.g., \newterm{abc}.
+% The option parameter provides an index term different from the new term, e.g., \newterm[\texttt{abc}]{abc}
+% The star version does not lowercase the index information, e.g., \newterm*{IBM}.
+\newcommand{\newtermFontInline}{\emph}
+\newcommand{\newterm}{\@ifstar\@snewterm\@newterm}
+\newcommand{\@newterm}[2][\@empty]{\lowercase{\def\temp{#2}}{\newtermFontInline{#2}}\ifx#1\@empty\index{\temp}\else\index{#1@{\protect#2}}\fi}
+\newcommand{\@snewterm}[2][\@empty]{{\newtermFontInline{#2}}\ifx#1\@empty\index{#2}\else\index{#1@{\protect#2}}\fi}
+% Latin abbreviation
+\newcommand{\abbrevFont}{\textit}                       % set empty for no italics
+\@ifundefined{eg}{
+\newcommand{\EG}{\abbrevFont{e}.\abbrevFont{g}.}
+\newcommand*{\eg}{%
+        \@ifnextchar{,}{\EG}%
+                {\@ifnextchar{:}{\EG}%
+                        {\EG,\xspace}}%
+}}{}%
+\@ifundefined{ie}{
+\newcommand{\IE}{\abbrevFont{i}.\abbrevFont{e}.}
+\newcommand*{\ie}{%
+        \@ifnextchar{,}{\IE}%
+                {\@ifnextchar{:}{\IE}%
+                        {\IE,\xspace}}%
+}}{}%
+\@ifundefined{etc}{
+\newcommand{\ETC}{\abbrevFont{etc}}
+\newcommand*{\etc}{%
+        \@ifnextchar{.}{\ETC}%
+        {\ETC.\xspace}%
+}}{}%
+\@ifundefined{etal}{
+\newcommand{\ETAL}{\abbrevFont{et}~\abbrevFont{al}}
+\newcommand*{\etal}{%
+        \@ifnextchar{.}{\protect\ETAL}%
+                {\protect\ETAL.\xspace}%
+}}{}%
+\@ifundefined{viz}{
+\newcommand{\VIZ}{\abbrevFont{viz}}
+\newcommand*{\viz}{%
+        \@ifnextchar{.}{\VIZ}%
+                {\VIZ.\xspace}%
+}}{}%
+\makeatother
+\newenvironment{cquote}{%
+        \list{}{\lstset{resetmargins=true,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt}\topsep=3pt\parsep=0pt\leftmargin=\parindentlnth\rightmargin\leftmargin}%
+        \item\relax
+}{%
+        \endlist
+}% cquote
+% CFA programming language, based on ANSI C (with some gcc additions)
+\lstdefinelanguage{CFA}[ANSI]{C}{
+        morekeywords={
+                _Alignas, _Alignof, __alignof, __alignof__, asm, __asm, __asm__, __attribute, __attribute__,
+                auto, _Bool, catch, catchResume, choose, _Complex, __complex, __complex__, __const, __const__,
+                coroutine, disable, dtype, enable, __extension__, exception, fallthrough, fallthru, finally,
+                __float80, float80, __float128, float128, forall, ftype, _Generic, _Imaginary, __imag, __imag__,
+                inline, __inline, __inline__, __int128, int128, __label__, monitor, mutex, _Noreturn, one_t, or,
+                otype, restrict, __restrict, __restrict__, __signed, __signed__, _Static_assert, thread,
+                _Thread_local, throw, throwResume, timeout, trait, try, ttype, typeof, __typeof, __typeof__,
+                virtual, __volatile, __volatile__, waitfor, when, with, zero_t},
+        moredirectives={defined,include_next}%
+}
+\lstset{
+language=CFA,
+columns=fullflexible,
+basicstyle=\linespread{0.9}\sf,                                                 % reduce line spacing and use sanserif font
+stringstyle=\tt,                                                                                % use typewriter font
+tabsize=5,                                                                                              % N space tabbing
+xleftmargin=\parindentlnth,                                                             % indent code to paragraph indentation
+%mathescape=true,                                                                               % LaTeX math escape in CFA code $...$
+escapechar=\$,                                                                                  % LaTeX escape in CFA code
+keepspaces=true,                                                                                %
+showstringspaces=false,                                                                 % do not show spaces with cup
+showlines=true,                                                                                 % show blank lines at end of code
+aboveskip=4pt,                                                                                  % spacing above/below code block
+belowskip=3pt,
+% replace/adjust listing characters that look bad in sanserif
+literate={-}{\makebox[1ex][c]{\raisebox{0.4ex}{\rule{0.8ex}{0.1ex}}}}1 {^}{\raisebox{0.6ex}{$\scriptstyle\land\,$}}1
+        {~}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{$\scriptstyle\sim\,$}}1 % {`}{\ttfamily\upshape\hspace*{-0.1ex}`}1
+        {<-}{$\leftarrow$}2 {=>}{$\Rightarrow$}2 {->}{\makebox[1ex][c]{\raisebox{0.5ex}{\rule{0.8ex}{0.075ex}}}\kern-0.2ex{\textgreater}}2,
+moredelim=**[is][\color{red}]{`}{`},
+}% lstset
+% uC++ programming language, based on ANSI C++
+\lstdefinelanguage{uC++}[ANSI]{C++}{
+        morekeywords={
+                _Accept, _AcceptReturn, _AcceptWait, _Actor, _At, _CatchResume, _Cormonitor, _Coroutine, _Disable,
+                _Else, _Enable, _Event, _Finally, _Monitor, _Mutex, _Nomutex, _PeriodicTask, _RealTimeTask,
+                _Resume, _Select, _SporadicTask, _Task, _Timeout, _When, _With, _Throw},
+}
+\lstdefinelanguage{Golang}{
+        morekeywords=[1]{package,import,func,type,struct,return,defer,panic,recover,select,var,const,iota,},
+        morekeywords=[2]{string,uint,uint8,uint16,uint32,uint64,int,int8,int16,int32,int64,
+                bool,float32,float64,complex64,complex128,byte,rune,uintptr, error,interface},
+        morekeywords=[3]{map,slice,make,new,nil,len,cap,copy,close,true,false,delete,append,real,imag,complex,chan,},
+        morekeywords=[4]{for,break,continue,range,goto,switch,case,fallthrough,if,else,default,},
+        morekeywords=[5]{Println,Printf,Error,},
+        sensitive=true,
+        morecomment=[l]{//},
+        morecomment=[s]{/*}{*/},
+        morestring=[b]',
+        morestring=[b]",
+        morestring=[s]{`}{`},
+}
+\lstnewenvironment{cfa}[1][]
+{\lstset{#1}}
+{}
+\lstnewenvironment{C++}[1][]                            % use C++ style
+{\lstset{language=C++,moredelim=**[is][\protect\color{red}]{`}{`},#1}\lstset{#1}}
+{}
+\lstnewenvironment{uC++}[1][]
+{\lstset{#1}}
+{}
+\lstnewenvironment{Go}[1][]
+{\lstset{#1}}
+{}
+% inline code @...@
+\lstMakeShortInline@%
+\title{\texorpdfstring{Concurrency in \protect\CFA}{Concurrency in Cforall}}
+\author[1]{Thierry Delisle}
+\author[1]{Peter A. Buhr*}
+\authormark{Thierry Delisle \textsc{et al}}
+\address[1]{\orgdiv{Cheriton School of Computer Science}, \orgname{University of Waterloo}, \orgaddress{\state{Ontario}, \country{Canada}}}
+\corres{*Peter A. Buhr, \email{pabuhr{\char`\@}uwaterloo.ca}}
+\presentaddress{Cheriton School of Computer Science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada}
+\abstract[Summary]{
+\CFA is a modern, polymorphic, \emph{non-object-oriented} extension of the C programming language.
+This paper discusses the design of the concurrency and parallelism features in \CFA, and the concurrent runtime-system.
+These features are created from scratch as ISO C lacks concurrency, relying largely on pthreads.
+Coroutines and lightweight (user) threads are introduced into the language.
+In addition, monitors are added as a high-level mechanism for mutual exclusion and synchronization.
+A unique contribution is allowing multiple monitors to be safely acquired simultaneously.
+All features respect the expectations of C programmers, while being fully integrate with the \CFA polymorphic type-system and other language features.
+Finally, experimental results are presented to compare the performance of the new features with similar mechanisms in other concurrent programming-languages.
+}%
+\keywords{concurrency, parallelism, coroutines, threads, monitors, runtime, C, Cforall}
 \begin{document}
+\linenumbers                                            % comment out to turn off line numbering
 \maketitle
+\begin{abstract}
+\CFA is a modern, \emph{non-object-oriented} extension of the C programming language.
+This paper serves as a definition and an implementation for the concurrency and parallelism \CFA offers. These features are created from scratch due to the lack of concurrency in ISO C. Lightweight threads are introduced into the language. In addition, monitors are introduced as a high-level tool for control-flow based synchronization and mutual-exclusion. The main contributions of this paper are two-fold: it extends the existing semantics of monitors introduce by~\cite{Hoare74} to handle monitors in groups and also details the engineering effort needed to introduce these features as core language features. Indeed, these features are added with respect to expectations of C programmers, and integrate with the \CFA type-system and other language features.
+\end{abstract}
+%----------------------------------------------------------------------
+% MAIN BODY
+%----------------------------------------------------------------------
+% ======================================================================
 % ======================================================================
 \section{Introduction}
 % ======================================================================
+This paper provides a minimal concurrency \textbf{api} that is simple, efficient and can be reused to build higher-level features. The simplest possible concurrency system is a thread and a lock but this low-level approach is hard to master. An easier approach for users is to support higher-level constructs as the basis of concurrency. Indeed, for highly productive concurrent programming, high-level approaches are much more popular~\cite{HPP:Study}. Examples are task based, message passing and implicit threading. The high-level approach and its minimal \textbf{api} are tested in a dialect of C, called \CFA. Furthermore, the proposed \textbf{api} doubles as an early definition of the \CFA language and library. This paper also provides an implementation of the concurrency library for \CFA as well as all the required language features added to the source-to-source translator.
+There are actually two problems that need to be solved in the design of concurrency for a programming language: which concurrency and which parallelism tools are available to the programmer. While these two concepts are often combined, they are in fact distinct, requiring different tools~\cite{Buhr05a}. Concurrency tools need to handle mutual exclusion and synchronization, while parallelism tools are about performance, cost and resource utilization.
+In the context of this paper, a \textbf{thread} is a fundamental unit of execution that runs a sequence of code, generally on a program stack. Having multiple simultaneous threads gives rise to concurrency and generally requires some kind of locking mechanism to ensure proper execution. Correspondingly, \textbf{concurrency} is defined as the concepts and challenges that occur when multiple independent (sharing memory, timing dependencies, etc.) concurrent threads are introduced. Accordingly, \textbf{locking} (and by extension locks) are defined as a mechanism that prevents the progress of certain threads in order to avoid problems due to concurrency. Finally, in this paper \textbf{parallelism} is distinct from concurrency and is defined as running multiple threads simultaneously. More precisely, parallelism implies \emph{actual} simultaneous execution as opposed to concurrency which only requires \emph{apparent} simultaneous execution. As such, parallelism is only observable in the differences in performance or, more generally, differences in timing.
+% ======================================================================
+This paper provides a minimal concurrency \newterm{Abstract Program Interface} (API) that is simple, efficient and can be used to build other concurrency features.
+While the simplest concurrency system is a thread and a lock, this low-level approach is hard to master.
+An easier approach for programmers is to support higher-level constructs as the basis of concurrency.
+Indeed, for highly productive concurrent programming, high-level approaches are much more popular~\cite{Hochstein05}.
+Examples of high-level approaches are task based~\cite{TBB}, message passing~\cite{Erlang,MPI}, and implicit threading~\cite{OpenMP}.
+This paper used the following terminology.
+A \newterm{thread} is a fundamental unit of execution that runs a sequence of code and requires a stack to maintain state.
+Multiple simultaneous threads gives rise to \newterm{concurrency}, which requires locking to ensure safe communication and access to shared data.
+% Correspondingly, concurrency is defined as the concepts and challenges that occur when multiple independent (sharing memory, timing dependencies, \etc) concurrent threads are introduced.
+\newterm{Locking}, and by extension locks, are defined as a mechanism to prevent progress of threads to provide safety.
+\newterm{Parallelism} is running multiple threads simultaneously.
+Parallelism implies \emph{actual} simultaneous execution, where concurrency only requires \emph{apparent} simultaneous execution.
+As such, parallelism is only observable in differences in performance, which is observed through differences in timing.
+Hence, there are two problems to be solved in the design of concurrency for a programming language: concurrency and parallelism.
+While these two concepts are often combined, they are in fact distinct, requiring different tools~\cite[\S~2]{Buhr05a}.
+Concurrency tools handle synchronization and mutual exclusion, while parallelism tools handle performance, cost and resource utilization.
+The proposed concurrency API is implemented in a dialect of C, called \CFA.
+The paper discusses how the language features are added to the \CFA translator with respect to parsing, semantic, and type checking, and the corresponding high-perforamnce runtime-library to implement the concurrency features.
 % ======================================================================
 …
 The following is a quick introduction to the \CFA language, specifically tailored to the features needed to support concurrency.
+\CFA is an extension of ISO-C and therefore supports all of the same paradigms as C. It is a non-object-oriented system-language, meaning most of the major abstractions have either no runtime overhead or can be opted out easily. Like C, the basics of \CFA revolve around structures and routines, which are thin abstractions over machine code. The vast majority of the code produced by the \CFA translator respects memory layouts and calling conventions laid out by C. Interestingly, while \CFA is not an object-oriented language, lacking the concept of a receiver (e.g., {\tt this}), it does have some notion of objects\footnote{C defines the term objects as : ``region of data storage in the execution environment, the contents of which can represent
+values''~\cite[3.15]{C11}}, most importantly construction and destruction of objects. Most of the following code examples can be found on the \CFA website~\cite{www-cfa}.
+% ======================================================================
+\CFA is an extension of ISO-C and therefore supports all of the same paradigms as C.
+It is a non-object-oriented system-language, meaning most of the major abstractions have either no runtime overhead or can be opted out easily.
+Like C, the basics of \CFA revolve around structures and routines, which are thin abstractions over machine code.
+The vast majority of the code produced by the \CFA translator respects memory layouts and calling conventions laid out by C.
+Interestingly, while \CFA is not an object-oriented language, lacking the concept of a receiver (\eg {\tt this}), it does have some notion of objects\footnote{C defines the term objects as : ``region of data storage in the execution environment, the contents of which can represent
+values''~\cite[3.15]{C11}}, most importantly construction and destruction of objects.
+Most of the following code examples can be found on the \CFA website~\cite{Cforall}.
 \subsection{References}
+Like \CC, \CFA introduces rebind-able references providing multiple dereferencing as an alternative to pointers. In regards to concurrency, the semantic difference between pointers and references are not particularly relevant, but since this document uses mostly references, here is a quick overview of the semantics:
+\begin{cfacode}
+Like \CC, \CFA introduces rebind-able references providing multiple dereferencing as an alternative to pointers.
+In regards to concurrency, the semantic difference between pointers and references are not particularly relevant, but since this document uses mostly references, here is a quick overview of the semantics:
+\begin{cfa}
 int x, *p1 = &x, **p2 = &p1, ***p3 = &p2,
         &r1 = x,    &&r2 = r1,   &&&r3 = r2;
 ***p3 = 3;                                                      //change x
 r3    = 3;                                                      //change x, ***r3
 **p3  = ...;                                            //change p1
 *p3   = ...;                                            //change p2
 int y, z, & ar[3] = {x, y, z};          //initialize array of references
 typeof( ar[1]) p;                                       //is int, referenced object type
 typeof(&ar[1]) q;                                       //is int &, reference type
 sizeof( ar[1]) == sizeof(int);          //is true, referenced object size
 sizeof(&ar[1]) == sizeof(int *);        //is true, reference size
 \end{cfacode}
+***p3 = 3;                                                      $\C{// change x}$
+r3    = 3;                                                      $\C{// change x, ***r3}$
+**p3  = ...;                                            $\C{// change p1}$
+*p3   = ...;                                            $\C{// change p2}$
+int y, z, & ar[3] = {x, y, z};          $\C{// initialize array of references}$
+typeof( ar[1]) p;                                       $\C{// is int, referenced object type}$
+typeof(&ar[1]) q;                                       $\C{// is int \&, reference type}$
+sizeof( ar[1]) == sizeof(int);          $\C{// is true, referenced object size}$
+sizeof(&ar[1]) == sizeof(int *);        $\C{// is true, reference size}$
+\end{cfa}
 The important take away from this code example is that a reference offers a handle to an object, much like a pointer, but which is automatically dereferenced for convenience.
 …
 \subsection{Overloading}
+Another important feature of \CFA is function overloading as in Java and \CC, where routines with the same name are selected based on the number and type of the arguments. As well, \CFA uses the return type as part of the selection criteria, as in Ada~\cite{Ada}. For routines with multiple parameters and returns, the selection is complex.
+\begin{cfacode}
+//selection based on type and number of parameters
+void f(void);                   //(1)
+void f(char);                   //(2)
+void f(int, double);    //(3)
+f();                                    //select (1)
+f('a');                                 //select (2)
+f(3, 5.2);                              //select (3)
+//selection based on  type and number of returns
+char   f(int);                  //(1)
+double f(int);                  //(2)
+char   c = f(3);                //select (1)
+double d = f(4);                //select (2)
+\end{cfacode}
+This feature is particularly important for concurrency since the runtime system relies on creating different types to represent concurrency objects. Therefore, overloading is necessary to prevent the need for long prefixes and other naming conventions that prevent name clashes. As seen in section \ref{basics}, routine \code{main} is an example that benefits from overloading.
+Another important feature of \CFA is function overloading as in Java and \CC, where routines with the same name are selected based on the number and type of the arguments.
+As well, \CFA uses the return type as part of the selection criteria, as in Ada~\cite{Ada}.
+For routines with multiple parameters and returns, the selection is complex.
+\begin{cfa}
+// selection based on type and number of parameters
+void f(void);                   $\C{// (1)}$
+void f(char);                   $\C{// (2)}$
+void f(int, double);    $\C{// (3)}$
+f();                                    $\C{// select (1)}$
+f('a');                                 $\C{// select (2)}$
+f(3, 5.2);                              $\C{// select (3)}$
+// selection based on  type and number of returns
+char   f(int);                  $\C{// (1)}$
+double f(int);                  $\C{// (2)}$
+char   c = f(3);                $\C{// select (1)}$
+double d = f(4);                $\C{// select (2)}$
+\end{cfa}
+This feature is particularly important for concurrency since the runtime system relies on creating different types to represent concurrency objects.
+Therefore, overloading is necessary to prevent the need for long prefixes and other naming conventions that prevent name clashes.
+As seen in section \ref{basics}, routine @main@ is an example that benefits from overloading.
 % ======================================================================
 \subsection{Operators}
+Overloading also extends to operators. The syntax for denoting operator-overloading is to name a routine with the symbol of the operator and question marks where the arguments of the operation appear, e.g.:
+\begin{cfacode}
+int ++? (int op);                       //unary prefix increment
+int ?++ (int op);                       //unary postfix increment
+int ?+? (int op1, int op2);             //binary plus
+int ?<=?(int op1, int op2);             //binary less than
+int ?=? (int & op1, int op2);           //binary assignment
+int ?+=?(int & op1, int op2);           //binary plus-assignment
+Overloading also extends to operators.
+The syntax for denoting operator-overloading is to name a routine with the symbol of the operator and question marks where the arguments of the operation appear, \eg:
+\begin{cfa}
+int ++? (int op);                       $\C{// unary prefix increment}$
+int ?++ (int op);                       $\C{// unary postfix increment}$
+int ?+? (int op1, int op2);             $\C{// binary plus}$
+int ?<=?(int op1, int op2);             $\C{// binary less than}$
+int ?=? (int & op1, int op2);           $\C{// binary assignment}$
+int ?+=?(int & op1, int op2);           $\C{// binary plus-assignment}$
 struct S {int i, j;};
 S ?+?(S op1, S op2) {                           //add two structures
+S ?+?(S op1, S op2) {                           $\C{// add two structures}$
         return (S){op1.i + op2.i, op1.j + op2.j};
+}
 S s1 = {1, 2}, s2 = {2, 3}, s3;
 s3 = s1 + s2;                                           //compute sum: s3 == {2, 5}
 \end{cfacode}
+s3 = s1 + s2;                                           $\C{// compute sum: s3 == {2, 5}}$
+\end{cfa}
 While concurrency does not use operator overloading directly, this feature is more important as an introduction for the syntax of constructors.
 % ======================================================================
 \subsection{Constructors/Destructors}
+Object lifetime is often a challenge in concurrency. \CFA uses the approach of giving concurrent meaning to object lifetime as a means of synchronization and/or mutual exclusion. Since \CFA relies heavily on the lifetime of objects, constructors and destructors is a core feature required for concurrency and parallelism. \CFA uses the following syntax for constructors and destructors:
+\begin{cfacode}
+Object lifetime is often a challenge in concurrency. \CFA uses the approach of giving concurrent meaning to object lifetime as a means of synchronization and/or mutual exclusion.
+Since \CFA relies heavily on the lifetime of objects, constructors and destructors is a core feature required for concurrency and parallelism. \CFA uses the following syntax for constructors and destructors:
+\begin{cfa}
 struct S {
         size_t size;
         int * ia;
 };
 void ?{}(S & s, int asize) {    //constructor operator
         s.size = asize;                         //initialize fields
+void ?{}(S & s, int asize) {    $\C{// constructor operator}$
+        s.size = asize;                         $\C{// initialize fields}$
         s.ia = calloc(size, sizeof(S));
+}
 void ^?{}(S & s) {                              //destructor operator
         free(ia);                                       //de-initialization fields
+void ^?{}(S & s) {                              $\C{// destructor operator}$
+        free(ia);                                       $\C{// de-initialization fields}$
+}
 int main() {
+        S x = {10}, y = {100};          //implicit calls: ?{}(x, 10), ?{}(y, 100)
+        ...                                                     //use x and y
+        ^x{};  ^y{};                            //explicit calls to de-initialize
+        x{20};  y{200};                         //explicit calls to reinitialize
+        ...                                                     //reuse x and y
+}                                                               //implicit calls: ^?{}(y), ^?{}(x)
+\end{cfacode}
+The language guarantees that every object and all their fields are constructed. Like \CC, construction of an object is automatically done on allocation and destruction of the object is done on deallocation. Allocation and deallocation can occur on the stack or on the heap.
+\begin{cfacode}
+        S x = {10}, y = {100};          $\C{// implicit calls: ?\{\}(x, 10), ?\{\}(y, 100)}$
+        ...                                                     $\C{// use x and y}$
+        ^x{};  ^y{};                            $\C{// explicit calls to de-initialize}$
+        x{20};  y{200};                         $\C{// explicit calls to reinitialize}$
+        ...                                                     $\C{// reuse x and y}$
+}                                                               $\C{// implicit calls: \^?\{\}(y), \^?\{\}(x)}$
+\end{cfa}
+The language guarantees that every object and all their fields are constructed.
+Like \CC, construction of an object is automatically done on allocation and destruction of the object is done on deallocation.
+Allocation and deallocation can occur on the stack or on the heap.
+\begin{cfa}
+{
         struct S s = {10};      //allocation, call constructor
+        struct S s = {10};      $\C{// allocation, call constructor}$
         ...
 }                                               //deallocation, call destructor
 struct S * s = new();   //allocation, call constructor
+}                                               $\C{// deallocation, call destructor}$
+struct S * s = new();   $\C{// allocation, call constructor}$
 ...
 delete(s);                              //deallocation, call destructor
 \end{cfacode}
 Note that like \CC, \CFA introduces \code{new} and \code{delete}, which behave like \code{malloc} and \code{free} in addition to constructing and destructing objects, after calling \code{malloc} and before calling \code{free}, respectively.
+delete(s);                              $\C{// deallocation, call destructor}$
+\end{cfa}
+Note that like \CC, \CFA introduces @new@ and @delete@, which behave like @malloc@ and @free@ in addition to constructing and destructing objects, after calling @malloc@ and before calling @free@, respectively.
 % ======================================================================
 \subsection{Parametric Polymorphism}
 \label{s:ParametricPolymorphism}
+Routines in \CFA can also be reused for multiple types. This capability is done using the \code{forall} clauses, which allow separately compiled routines to support generic usage over multiple types. For example, the following sum function works for any type that supports construction from 0 and addition:
+\begin{cfacode}
+//constraint type, 0 and +
+Routines in \CFA can also be reused for multiple types.
+This capability is done using the @forall@ clauses, which allow separately compiled routines to support generic usage over multiple types.
+For example, the following sum function works for any type that supports construction from 0 and addition:
+\begin{cfa}
+// constraint type, 0 and +
 forall(otype T | { void ?{}(T *, zero_t); T ?+?(T, T); })
 T sum(T a[ ], size_t size) {
         T total = 0;                            //construct T from 0
+        T total = 0;                            $\C{// construct T from 0}$
         for(size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
                 total = total + a[i];   //select appropriate +
+                total = total + a[i];   $\C{// select appropriate +}$
         return total;
+}
 S sa[5];
+int i = sum(sa, 5);                             //use S's 0 construction and +
+\end{cfacode}
+Since writing constraints on types can become cumbersome for more constrained functions, \CFA also has the concept of traits. Traits are named collection of constraints that can be used both instead and in addition to regular constraints:
+\begin{cfacode}
+int i = sum(sa, 5);                             $\C{// use S's 0 construction and +}$
+\end{cfa}
+Since writing constraints on types can become cumbersome for more constrained functions, \CFA also has the concept of traits.
+Traits are named collection of constraints that can be used both instead and in addition to regular constraints:
+\begin{cfa}
 trait summable( otype T ) {
         void ?{}(T *, zero_t);          //constructor from 0 literal
         T ?+?(T, T);                            //assortment of additions
+        void ?{}(T *, zero_t);          $\C{// constructor from 0 literal}$
+        T ?+?(T, T);                            $\C{// assortment of additions}$
         T ?+=?(T *, T);
         T ++?(T *);
         T ?++(T *);
 };
 forall( otype T | summable(T) ) //use trait
+forall( otype T | summable(T) ) $\C{// use trait}$
 T sum(T a[], size_t size);
+\end{cfacode}
+Note that the type use for assertions can be either an \code{otype} or a \code{dtype}. Types declared as \code{otype} refer to ``complete'' objects, i.e., objects with a size, a default constructor, a copy constructor, a destructor and an assignment operator. Using \code{dtype,} on the other hand, has none of these assumptions but is extremely restrictive, it only guarantees the object is addressable.
+\end{cfa}
+Note that the type use for assertions can be either an @otype@ or a @dtype@.
+Types declared as @otype@ refer to ``complete'' objects, \ie objects with a size, a default constructor, a copy constructor, a destructor and an assignment operator.
+Using @dtype@, on the other hand, has none of these assumptions but is extremely restrictive, it only guarantees the object is addressable.
 % ======================================================================
 \subsection{with Clause/Statement}
+Since \CFA lacks the concept of a receiver, certain functions end up needing to repeat variable names often. To remove this inconvenience, \CFA provides the \code{with} statement, which opens an aggregate scope making its fields directly accessible (like Pascal).
+\begin{cfacode}
+Since \CFA lacks the concept of a receiver, certain functions end up needing to repeat variable names often.
+To remove this inconvenience, \CFA provides the @with@ statement, which opens an aggregate scope making its fields directly accessible (like Pascal).
+\begin{cfa}
 struct S { int i, j; };
 int mem(S & this) with (this)           //with clause
         i = 1;                                                  //this->i
         j = 2;                                                  //this->j
+int mem(S & this) with (this)           $\C{// with clause}$
+        i = 1;                                                  $\C{// this->i}$
+        j = 2;                                                  $\C{// this->j}$
+}
 int foo() {
         struct S1 { ... } s1;
         struct S2 { ... } s2;
         with (s1)                                               //with statement
+        with (s1)                                               $\C{// with statement}$
+        {
                 //access fields of s1 without qualification
                 with (s2)                                       //nesting
+                // access fields of s1 without qualification
+                with (s2)                                       $\C{// nesting}$
+                {
                         //access fields of s1 and s2 without qualification
+                        // access fields of s1 and s2 without qualification
+                }
+        }
         with (s1, s2)                                   //scopes open in parallel
+        with (s1, s2)                                   $\C{// scopes open in parallel}$
+        {
                 //access fields of s1 and s2 without qualification
+                // access fields of s1 and s2 without qualification
+        }
+}
 \end{cfacode}
 For more information on \CFA see \cite{cforall-ug,rob-thesis,www-cfa}.
+\end{cfa}
+For more information on \CFA see \cite{cforall-ug,Schluntz17,www-cfa}.
 % ======================================================================
 …
 % ======================================================================
 % ======================================================================
+Before any detailed discussion of the concurrency and parallelism in \CFA, it is important to describe the basics of concurrency and how they are expressed in \CFA user code.
+\section{Basics of concurrency}
+At its core, concurrency is based on having multiple call-stacks and scheduling among threads of execution executing on these stacks. Concurrency without parallelism only requires having multiple call stacks (or contexts) for a single thread of execution.
+Execution with a single thread and multiple stacks where the thread is self-scheduling deterministically across the stacks is called coroutining. Execution with a single and multiple stacks but where the thread is scheduled by an oracle (non-deterministic from the thread's perspective) across the stacks is called concurrency.
+Therefore, a minimal concurrency system can be achieved by creating coroutines (see Section \ref{coroutine}), which instead of context-switching among each other, always ask an oracle where to context-switch next. While coroutines can execute on the caller's stack-frame, stack-full coroutines allow full generality and are sufficient as the basis for concurrency. The aforementioned oracle is a scheduler and the whole system now follows a cooperative threading-model (a.k.a., non-preemptive scheduling). The oracle/scheduler can either be a stack-less or stack-full entity and correspondingly require one or two context-switches to run a different coroutine. In any case, a subset of concurrency related challenges start to appear. For the complete set of concurrency challenges to occur, the only feature missing is preemption.
+A scheduler introduces order of execution uncertainty, while preemption introduces uncertainty about where context switches occur. Mutual exclusion and synchronization are ways of limiting non-determinism in a concurrent system. Now it is important to understand that uncertainty is desirable; uncertainty can be used by runtime systems to significantly increase performance and is often the basis of giving a user the illusion that tasks are running in parallel. Optimal performance in concurrent applications is often obtained by having as much non-determinism as correctness allows.
+\section{\protect\CFA's Thread Building Blocks}
+One of the important features that are missing in C is threading\footnote{While the C11 standard defines a ``threads.h'' header, it is minimal and defined as optional. As such, library support for threading is far from widespread. At the time of writing the paper, neither \texttt{gcc} nor \texttt{clang} support ``threads.h'' in their respective standard libraries.}. On modern architectures, a lack of threading is unacceptable~\cite{Sutter05, Sutter05b}, and therefore modern programming languages must have the proper tools to allow users to write efficient concurrent programs to take advantage of parallelism. As an extension of C, \CFA needs to express these concepts in a way that is as natural as possible to programmers familiar with imperative languages. And being a system-level language means programmers expect to choose precisely which features they need and which cost they are willing to pay.
+\section{Coroutines: A Stepping Stone}\label{coroutine}
+While the main focus of this proposal is concurrency and parallelism, it is important to address coroutines, which are actually a significant building block of a concurrency system. \textbf{Coroutine}s are generalized routines which have predefined points where execution is suspended and can be resumed at a later time. Therefore, they need to deal with context switches and other context-management operations. This proposal includes coroutines both as an intermediate step for the implementation of threads, and a first-class feature of \CFA. Furthermore, many design challenges of threads are at least partially present in designing coroutines, which makes the design effort that much more relevant. The core \textbf{api} of coroutines revolves around two features: independent call-stacks and \code{suspend}/\code{resume}.
+\begin{table}
+\begin{center}
+\begin{tabular}{c @{\hskip 0.025in}|@{\hskip 0.025in} c @{\hskip 0.025in}|@{\hskip 0.025in} c}
+\begin{ccode}[tabsize=2]
+//Using callbacks
+void fibonacci_func(
+        int n,
+        void (*callback)(int)
+) {
+        int first = 0;
+        int second = 1;
+        int next, i;
+        for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
+        {
+                if(i <= 1)
+                        next = i;
+                else {
+                        next = f1 + f2;
+                        f1 = f2;
+                        f2 = next;
+                }
+                callback(next);
+At its core, concurrency is based on having multiple call-stacks and scheduling among threads of execution executing on these stacks.
+Multiple call stacks (or contexts) and a single thread of execution does \emph{not} imply concurrency.
+Execution with a single thread and multiple stacks where the thread is deterministically self-scheduling across the stacks is called \newterm{coroutining};
+execution with a single thread and multiple stacks but where the thread is scheduled by an oracle (non-deterministic from the thread's perspective) across the stacks is called concurrency~\cite[\S~3]{Buhr05a}.
+Therefore, a minimal concurrency system can be achieved using coroutines (see Section \ref{coroutine}), which instead of context-switching among each other, always defer to an oracle for where to context-switch next.
+While coroutines can execute on the caller's stack-frame, stack-full coroutines allow full generality and are sufficient as the basis for concurrency.
+The aforementioned oracle is a scheduler and the whole system now follows a cooperative threading-model (a.k.a., non-preemptive scheduling).
+The oracle/scheduler can either be a stack-less or stack-full entity and correspondingly require one or two context-switches to run a different coroutine.
+In any case, a subset of concurrency related challenges start to appear.
+For the complete set of concurrency challenges to occur, the only feature missing is preemption.
+A scheduler introduces order of execution uncertainty, while preemption introduces uncertainty about where context switches occur.
+Mutual exclusion and synchronization are ways of limiting non-determinism in a concurrent system.
+Now it is important to understand that uncertainty is desirable; uncertainty can be used by runtime systems to significantly increase performance and is often the basis of giving a user the illusion that tasks are running in parallel.
+Optimal performance in concurrent applications is often obtained by having as much non-determinism as correctness allows.
+\subsection{\protect\CFA's Thread Building Blocks}
+One of the important features that are missing in C is threading\footnote{While the C11 standard defines a ``threads.h'' header, it is minimal and defined as optional.
+As such, library support for threading is far from widespread.
+At the time of writing the paper, neither \protect\lstinline|gcc| nor \protect\lstinline|clang| support ``threads.h'' in their standard libraries.}.
+On modern architectures, a lack of threading is unacceptable~\cite{Sutter05, Sutter05b}, and therefore modern programming languages must have the proper tools to allow users to write efficient concurrent programs to take advantage of parallelism.
+As an extension of C, \CFA needs to express these concepts in a way that is as natural as possible to programmers familiar with imperative languages.
+And being a system-level language means programmers expect to choose precisely which features they need and which cost they are willing to pay.
+\subsection{Coroutines: A Stepping Stone}\label{coroutine}
+While the focus of this proposal is concurrency and parallelism, it is important to address coroutines, which are a significant building block of a concurrency system.
+\newterm{Coroutine}s are generalized routines with points where execution is suspended and resumed at a later time.
+Suspend/resume is a context switche and coroutines have other context-management operations.
+Many design challenges of threads are partially present in designing coroutines, which makes the design effort relevant.
+The core \textbf{api} of coroutines has two features: independent call-stacks and @suspend@/@resume@.
+A coroutine handles the class of problems that need to retain state between calls (\eg plugin, device driver, finite-state machine).
+For example, a problem made easier with coroutines is unbounded generators, \eg generating an infinite sequence of Fibonacci numbers:
+\begin{displaymath}
+f(n) = \left \{
+\begin{array}{ll}
+                               & n = 0         \\
+                               & n = 1         \\
+f(n-1) + f(n-2) & n \ge 2       \\
+\end{array}
+\right.
+\end{displaymath}
+Figure~\ref{f:C-fibonacci} shows conventional approaches for writing a Fibonacci generator in C.
+Figure~\ref{f:GlobalVariables} illustrates the following problems:
+unencapsulated global variables necessary to retain state between calls;
+only one fibonacci generator can run at a time;
+execution state must be explicitly retained.
+Figure~\ref{f:ExternalState} addresses these issues:
+unencapsulated program global variables become encapsulated structure variables;
+multiple fibonacci generators can run at a time by declaring multiple fibonacci objects;
+explicit execution state is removed by precomputing the first two Fibonacci numbers and returning $f(n-2)$.
+\begin{figure}
+\centering
+\newbox\myboxA
+\begin{lrbox}{\myboxA}
+\begin{lstlisting}[aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
+`int f1, f2, state = 1;`   // single global variables
+int fib() {
+        int fn;
+        `switch ( state )` {  // explicit execution state
+          case 1: fn = 0;  f1 = fn;  state = 2;  break;
+          case 2: fn = 1;  f2 = f1;  f1 = fn;  state = 3;  break;
+          case 3: fn = f1 + f2;  f2 = f1;  f1 = fn;  break;
+        }
+}
+        return fn;
+}
 int main() {
+        void print_fib(int n) {
+                printf("%d\n", n);
+        for ( int i = 0; i < 10; i += 1 ) {
+                printf( "%d\n", fib() );
+        }
+        fibonacci_func(
+, print_fib
+        );
+}
+\end{ccode}&\begin{ccode}[tabsize=2]
+//Using output array
+void fibonacci_array(
+        int n,
+        int* array
+) {
+        int f1 = 0; int f2 = 1;
+        int next, i;
+        for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
+        {
+                if(i <= 1)
+                        next = i;
+                else {
+                        next = f1 + f2;
+                        f1 = f2;
+                        f2 = next;
+                }
+                array[i] = next;
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+\end{lrbox}
+\newbox\myboxB
+\begin{lrbox}{\myboxB}
+\begin{lstlisting}[aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
+#define FIB_INIT `{ 0, 1 }`
+typedef struct { int f2, f1; } Fib;
+int fib( Fib * f ) {
+        int ret = f->f2;
+        int fn = f->f1 + f->f2;
+        f->f2 = f->f1; f->f1 = fn;
+        return ret;
+}
+int main() {
+        Fib f1 = FIB_INIT, f2 = FIB_INIT;
+        for ( int i = 0; i < 10; i += 1 ) {
+                printf( "%d %d\n", fib( &f1 ), fib( &f2 ) );
+        }
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+\end{lrbox}
+\subfloat[3 States: global variables]{\label{f:GlobalVariables}\usebox\myboxA}
+\qquad
+\subfloat[1 State: external variables]{\label{f:ExternalState}\usebox\myboxB}
+\caption{C Fibonacci Implementations}
+\label{f:C-fibonacci}
+\bigskip
+\newbox\myboxA
+\begin{lrbox}{\myboxA}
+\begin{lstlisting}[aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
+`coroutine` Fib { int fn; };
+void main( Fib & f ) with( f ) {
+        int f1, f2;
+        fn = 0;  f1 = fn;  `suspend()`;
+        fn = 1;  f2 = f1;  f1 = fn;  `suspend()`;
+        for ( ;; ) {
+                fn = f1 + f2;  f2 = f1;  f1 = fn;  `suspend()`;
+        }
+}
+int next( Fib & fib ) with( fib ) {
+        `resume( fib );`
+        return fn;
+}
 int main() {
+        int a[10];
+        fibonacci_func(
+, a
+        );
+        for(int i=0;i<10;i++){
+                printf("%d\n", a[i]);
+        }
+}
+\end{ccode}&\begin{ccode}[tabsize=2]
+//Using external state
+typedef struct {
+        int f1, f2;
+} Iterator_t;
+int fibonacci_state(
+        Iterator_t* it
+) {
+        int f;
+        f = it->f1 + it->f2;
+        it->f2 = it->f1;
+        it->f1 = max(f,1);
+        return f;
+}
+int main() {
+        Iterator_t it={0,0};
+        for(int i=0;i<10;i++){
+                printf("%d\n",
+                        fibonacci_state(
+                                &it
+                        );
+                );
+        }
+}
+\end{ccode}
+\end{tabular}
+\end{center}
+\caption{Different implementations of a Fibonacci sequence generator in C.}
+\label{lst:fibonacci-c}
+\end{table}
+A good example of a problem made easier with coroutines is generators, e.g., generating the Fibonacci sequence. This problem comes with the challenge of decoupling how a sequence is generated and how it is used. Listing \ref{lst:fibonacci-c} shows conventional approaches to writing generators in C. All three of these approach suffer from strong coupling. The left and centre approaches require that the generator have knowledge of how the sequence is used, while the rightmost approach requires holding internal state between calls on behalf of the generator and makes it much harder to handle corner cases like the Fibonacci seed.
+Listing \ref{lst:fibonacci-cfa} is an example of a solution to the Fibonacci problem using \CFA coroutines, where the coroutine stack holds sufficient state for the next generation. This solution has the advantage of having very strong decoupling between how the sequence is generated and how it is used. Indeed, this version is as easy to use as the \code{fibonacci_state} solution, while the implementation is very similar to the \code{fibonacci_func} example.
+\begin{figure}
+\begin{cfacode}[caption={Implementation of Fibonacci using coroutines},label={lst:fibonacci-cfa}]
+coroutine Fibonacci {
+        int fn; //used for communication
+};
+void ?{}(Fibonacci& this) { //constructor
+        this.fn = 0;
+}
+//main automatically called on first resume
+void main(Fibonacci& this) with (this) {
+        int fn1, fn2;           //retained between resumes
+        fn  = 0;
+        fn1 = fn;
+        suspend(this);          //return to last resume
+        fn  = 1;
+        fn2 = fn1;
+        fn1 = fn;
+        suspend(this);          //return to last resume
+        for ( ;; ) {
+                fn  = fn1 + fn2;
+                fn2 = fn1;
+                fn1 = fn;
+                suspend(this);  //return to last resume
+        }
+}
+int next(Fibonacci& this) {
+        resume(this); //transfer to last suspend
+        return this.fn;
+}
+void main() { //regular program main
+        Fibonacci f1, f2;
+        Fib f1, f2;
         for ( int i = 1; i <= 10; i += 1 ) {
                 sout | next( f1 ) | next( f2 ) | endl;
+        }
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+\end{lstlisting}
+\end{lrbox}
+\newbox\myboxB
+\begin{lrbox}{\myboxB}
+\begin{lstlisting}[aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
+`coroutine` Fib { int ret; };
+void main( Fib & f ) with( f ) {
+        int fn, f1 = 1, f2 = 0;
+        for ( ;; ) {
+                ret = f2;
+                fn = f1 + f2;  f2 = f1;  f1 = fn; `suspend();`
+        }
+}
+int next( Fib & fib ) with( fib ) {
+        `resume( fib );`
+        return ret;
+}
+\end{lstlisting}
+\end{lrbox}
+\subfloat[3 States, internal variables]{\label{f:Coroutine3States}\usebox\myboxA}
+\qquad
+\subfloat[1 State, internal variables]{\label{f:Coroutine1State}\usebox\myboxB}
+\caption{\CFA Coroutine Fibonacci Implementations}
+\label{f:fibonacci-cfa}
 \end{figure}
+Listing \ref{lst:fmt-line} shows the \code{Format} coroutine for restructuring text into groups of character blocks of fixed size. The example takes advantage of resuming coroutines in the constructor to simplify the code and highlights the idea that interesting control flow can occur in the constructor.
+Figure~\ref{f:Coroutine3States} creates a @coroutine@ type, which provides communication for multiple interface functions, and the \newterm{coroutine main}, which runs on the coroutine stack.
+\begin{cfa}
+`coroutine C { char c; int i; _Bool s; };`      $\C{// used for communication}$
+void ?{}( C & c ) { s = false; }                        $\C{// constructor}$
+void main( C & cor ) with( cor ) {                      $\C{// actual coroutine}$
+        while ( ! s ) // process c
+        if ( v == ... ) s = false;
+}
+// interface functions
+char cont( C & cor, char ch ) { c = ch; resume( cor ); return c; }
+_Bool stop( C & cor, int v ) { s = true; i = v; resume( cor ); return s; }
+\end{cfa}
+encapsulates the Fibonacci state in the  shows is an example of a solution to the Fibonacci problem using \CFA coroutines, where the coroutine stack holds sufficient state for the next generation.
+This solution has the advantage of having very strong decoupling between how the sequence is generated and how it is used.
+Indeed, this version is as easy to use as the @fibonacci_state@ solution, while the implementation is very similar to the @fibonacci_func@ example.
+Figure~\ref{f:fmt-line} shows the @Format@ coroutine for restructuring text into groups of character blocks of fixed size.
+The example takes advantage of resuming coroutines in the constructor to simplify the code and highlights the idea that interesting control flow can occur in the constructor.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{cfacode}[tabsize=3,caption={Formatting text into lines of 5 blocks of 4 characters.},label={lst:fmt-line}]
+//format characters into blocks of 4 and groups of 5 blocks per line
 coroutine Format {
         char ch;                                                                        //used for communication
         int g, b;                                                               //global because used in destructor
+\centering
+\begin{cfa}
+`coroutine` Format {
+        char ch;                                                                $\C{// used for communication}$
+        int g, b;                                                               $\C{// global because used in destructor}$
 };
+void  ?{}(Format& fmt) {
+        resume( fmt );                                                  //prime (start) coroutine
+}
+void ^?{}(Format& fmt) with fmt {
+        if ( fmt.g != 0 || fmt.b != 0 )
+        sout | endl;
+}
+void main(Format& fmt) with fmt {
+        for ( ;; ) {                                                    //for as many characters
+                for(g = 0; g < 5; g++) {                //groups of 5 blocks
+                        for(b = 0; b < 4; fb++) {       //blocks of 4 characters
+                                suspend();
+                                sout | ch;                                      //print character
+void ?{}( Format & fmt ) { `resume( fmt );` } $\C{// prime (start) coroutine}$
+void ^?{}( Format & fmt ) with( fmt ) { if ( g != 0 || b != 0 ) sout | endl; }
+void main( Format & fmt ) with( fmt ) {
+        for ( ;; ) {                                                    $\C{// for as many characters}$
+                for ( g = 0; g < 5; g += 1 ) {          $\C{// groups of 5 blocks}$
+                        for ( b = 0; b < 4; b += 1 ) {  $\C{// blocks of 4 characters}$
+                                `suspend();`
+                                sout | ch;                                      $\C{// print character}$
+                        }
                         sout | "  ";                                    //print block separator
+                        sout | "  ";                                    $\C{// print block separator}$
+                }
                 sout | endl;                                            //print group separator
+                sout | endl;                                            $\C{// print group separator}$
+        }
+}
+void prt(Format & fmt, char ch) {
+void prt( Format & fmt, char ch ) {
         fmt.ch = ch;
+        resume(fmt);
+}
+        `resume( fmt );`
+}
 int main() {
         Format fmt;
         char ch;
         Eof: for ( ;; ) {                                               //read until end of file
                 sin | ch;                                                       //read one character
                 if(eof(sin)) break Eof;                 //eof ?
                 prt(fmt, ch);                                           //push character for formatting
+        for ( ;; ) {                                                    $\C{// read until end of file}$
+                sin | ch;                                                       $\C{// read one character}$
+          if ( eof( sin ) ) break;                              $\C{// eof ?}$
+                prt( fmt, ch );                                         $\C{// push character for formatting}$
+        }
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
+\caption{Formatting text into lines of 5 blocks of 4 characters.}
+\label{f:fmt-line}
 \end{figure}
+\subsection{Construction}
+One important design challenge for implementing coroutines and threads (shown in section \ref{threads}) is that the runtime system needs to run code after the user-constructor runs to connect the fully constructed object into the system. In the case of coroutines, this challenge is simpler since there is no non-determinism from preemption or scheduling. However, the underlying challenge remains the same for coroutines and threads.
+The runtime system needs to create the coroutine's stack and, more importantly, prepare it for the first resumption. The timing of the creation is non-trivial since users expect both to have fully constructed objects once execution enters the coroutine main and to be able to resume the coroutine from the constructor. There are several solutions to this problem but the chosen option effectively forces the design of the coroutine.
+Furthermore, \CFA faces an extra challenge as polymorphic routines create invisible thunks when cast to non-polymorphic routines and these thunks have function scope. For example, the following code, while looking benign, can run into undefined behaviour because of thunks:
+\begin{cfacode}
+//async: Runs function asynchronously on another thread
+\begin{figure}
+\centering
+\lstset{language=CFA,escapechar={},moredelim=**[is][\protect\color{red}]{`}{`}}
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\begin{cfa}
+`coroutine` Prod {
+        Cons & c;
+        int N, money, receipt;
+};
+void main( Prod & prod ) with( prod ) {
+        // 1st resume starts here
+        for ( int i = 0; i < N; i += 1 ) {
+                int p1 = random( 100 ), p2 = random( 100 );
+                sout | p1 | " " | p2 | endl;
+                int status = delivery( c, p1, p2 );
+                sout | " $" | money | endl | status | endl;
+                receipt += 1;
+        }
+        stop( c );
+        sout | "prod stops" | endl;
+}
+int payment( Prod & prod, int money ) {
+        prod.money = money;
+        `resume( prod );`
+        return prod.receipt;
+}
+void start( Prod & prod, int N, Cons &c ) {
+        &prod.c = &c;
+        prod.[N, receipt] = [N, 0];
+        `resume( prod );`
+}
+int main() {
+        Prod prod;
+        Cons cons = { prod };
+        srandom( getpid() );
+        start( prod, 5, cons );
+}
+\end{cfa}
+&
+\begin{cfa}
+`coroutine` Cons {
+        Prod & p;
+        int p1, p2, status;
+        _Bool done;
+};
+void ?{}( Cons & cons, Prod & p ) {
+        &cons.p = &p;
+        cons.[status, done ] = [0, false];
+}
+void ^?{}( Cons & cons ) {}
+void main( Cons & cons ) with( cons ) {
+        // 1st resume starts here
+        int money = 1, receipt;
+        for ( ; ! done; ) {
+                sout | p1 | " " | p2 | endl | " $" | money | endl;
+                status += 1;
+                receipt = payment( p, money );
+                sout | " #" | receipt | endl;
+                money += 1;
+        }
+        sout | "cons stops" | endl;
+}
+int delivery( Cons & cons, int p1, int p2 ) {
+        cons.[p1, p2] = [p1, p2];
+        `resume( cons );`
+        return cons.status;
+}
+void stop( Cons & cons ) {
+        cons.done = true;
+        `resume( cons );`
+}
+\end{cfa}
+\end{tabular}
+\caption{Producer / consumer: resume-resume cycle, bi-directional communication}
+\label{f:ProdCons}
+\end{figure}
+\subsubsection{Construction}
+One important design challenge for implementing coroutines and threads (shown in section \ref{threads}) is that the runtime system needs to run code after the user-constructor runs to connect the fully constructed object into the system.
+In the case of coroutines, this challenge is simpler since there is no non-determinism from preemption or scheduling.
+However, the underlying challenge remains the same for coroutines and threads.
+The runtime system needs to create the coroutine's stack and, more importantly, prepare it for the first resumption.
+The timing of the creation is non-trivial since users expect both to have fully constructed objects once execution enters the coroutine main and to be able to resume the coroutine from the constructor.
+There are several solutions to this problem but the chosen option effectively forces the design of the coroutine.
+Furthermore, \CFA faces an extra challenge as polymorphic routines create invisible thunks when cast to non-polymorphic routines and these thunks have function scope.
+For example, the following code, while looking benign, can run into undefined behaviour because of thunks:
+\begin{cfa}
+// async: Runs function asynchronously on another thread
 forall(otype T)
 extern void async(void (*func)(T*), T* obj);
 …
 void bar() {
         int a;
         async(noop, &a); //start thread running noop with argument a
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+        async(noop, &a); // start thread running noop with argument a
+}
+\end{cfa}
 The generated C code\footnote{Code trimmed down for brevity} creates a local thunk to hold type information:
 \begin{ccode}
+\begin{cfa}
 extern void async(/* omitted */, void (*func)(void*), void* obj);
 …
         async(/* omitted */, ((void (*)(void*))(&_thunk0)), (&a));
+}
+\end{ccode}
+The problem in this example is a storage management issue, the function pointer \code{_thunk0} is only valid until the end of the block, which limits the viable solutions because storing the function pointer for too long causes undefined behaviour; i.e., the stack-based thunk being destroyed before it can be used. This challenge is an extension of challenges that come with second-class routines. Indeed, GCC nested routines also have the limitation that nested routine cannot be passed outside of the declaration scope. The case of coroutines and threads is simply an extension of this problem to multiple call stacks.
+\subsection{Alternative: Composition}
+\end{cfa}
+The problem in this example is a storage management issue, the function pointer @_thunk0@ is only valid until the end of the block, which limits the viable solutions because storing the function pointer for too long causes undefined behaviour; \ie the stack-based thunk being destroyed before it can be used.
+This challenge is an extension of challenges that come with second-class routines.
+Indeed, GCC nested routines also have the limitation that nested routine cannot be passed outside of the declaration scope.
+The case of coroutines and threads is simply an extension of this problem to multiple call stacks.
+\subsubsection{Alternative: Composition}
 One solution to this challenge is to use composition/containment, where coroutine fields are added to manage the coroutine.
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 struct Fibonacci {
         int fn; //used for communication
         coroutine c; //composition
+        int fn; // used for communication
+        coroutine c; // composition
 };
 …
 void ?{}(Fibonacci& this) {
         this.fn = 0;
         //Call constructor to initialize coroutine
+        // Call constructor to initialize coroutine
         (this.c){myMain};
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+The downside of this approach is that users need to correctly construct the coroutine handle before using it. Like any other objects, the user must carefully choose construction order to prevent usage of objects not yet constructed. However, in the case of coroutines, users must also pass to the coroutine information about the coroutine main, like in the previous example. This opens the door for user errors and requires extra runtime storage to pass at runtime information that can be known statically.
+\subsection{Alternative: Reserved keyword}
+\end{cfa}
+The downside of this approach is that users need to correctly construct the coroutine handle before using it.
+Like any other objects, the user must carefully choose construction order to prevent usage of objects not yet constructed.
+However, in the case of coroutines, users must also pass to the coroutine information about the coroutine main, like in the previous example.
+This opens the door for user errors and requires extra runtime storage to pass at runtime information that can be known statically.
+\subsubsection{Alternative: Reserved keyword}
 The next alternative is to use language support to annotate coroutines as follows:
+\begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 coroutine Fibonacci {
         int fn; //used for communication
+        int fn; // used for communication
 };
+\end{cfacode}
+The \code{coroutine} keyword means the compiler can find and inject code where needed. The downside of this approach is that it makes coroutine a special case in the language. Users wanting to extend coroutines or build their own for various reasons can only do so in ways offered by the language. Furthermore, implementing coroutines without language supports also displays the power of the programming language used. While this is ultimately the option used for idiomatic \CFA code, coroutines and threads can still be constructed by users without using the language support. The reserved keywords are only present to improve ease of use for the common cases.
+\subsection{Alternative: Lambda Objects}
+For coroutines as for threads, many implementations are based on routine pointers or function objects~\cite{Butenhof97, C++14, MS:VisualC++, BoostCoroutines15}. For example, Boost implements coroutines in terms of four functor object types:
+\begin{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
+The @coroutine@ keyword means the compiler can find and inject code where needed.
+The downside of this approach is that it makes coroutine a special case in the language.
+Users wanting to extend coroutines or build their own for various reasons can only do so in ways offered by the language.
+Furthermore, implementing coroutines without language supports also displays the power of the programming language used.
+While this is ultimately the option used for idiomatic \CFA code, coroutines and threads can still be constructed by users without using the language support.
+The reserved keywords are only present to improve ease of use for the common cases.
+\subsubsection{Alternative: Lambda Objects}
+For coroutines as for threads, many implementations are based on routine pointers or function objects~\cite{Butenhof97, C++14, MS:VisualC++, BoostCoroutines15}.
+For example, Boost implements coroutines in terms of four functor object types:
+\begin{cfa}
 asymmetric_coroutine<>::pull_type
 asymmetric_coroutine<>::push_type
 symmetric_coroutine<>::call_type
 symmetric_coroutine<>::yield_type
+\end{cfacode}
+Often, the canonical threading paradigm in languages is based on function pointers, \texttt{pthread} being one of the most well-known examples. The main problem of this approach is that the thread usage is limited to a generic handle that must otherwise be wrapped in a custom type. Since the custom type is simple to write in \CFA and solves several issues, added support for routine/lambda based coroutines adds very little.
+A variation of this would be to use a simple function pointer in the same way \texttt{pthread} does for threads:
+\begin{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
+Often, the canonical threading paradigm in languages is based on function pointers, @pthread@ being one of the most well-known examples.
+The main problem of this approach is that the thread usage is limited to a generic handle that must otherwise be wrapped in a custom type.
+Since the custom type is simple to write in \CFA and solves several issues, added support for routine/lambda based coroutines adds very little.
+A variation of this would be to use a simple function pointer in the same way @pthread@ does for threads:
+\begin{cfa}
 void foo( coroutine_t cid, void* arg ) {
         int* value = (int*)arg;
         //Coroutine body
+        // Coroutine body
+}
 …
         coroutine_resume( &cid );
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+This semantics is more common for thread interfaces but coroutines work equally well. As discussed in section \ref{threads}, this approach is superseded by static approaches in terms of expressivity.
+\subsection{Alternative: Trait-Based Coroutines}
+Finally, the underlying approach, which is the one closest to \CFA idioms, is to use trait-based lazy coroutines. This approach defines a coroutine as anything that satisfies the trait \code{is_coroutine} (as defined below) and is used as a coroutine.
+\begin{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
+This semantics is more common for thread interfaces but coroutines work equally well.
+As discussed in section \ref{threads}, this approach is superseded by static approaches in terms of expressivity.
+\subsubsection{Alternative: Trait-Based Coroutines}
+Finally, the underlying approach, which is the one closest to \CFA idioms, is to use trait-based lazy coroutines.
+This approach defines a coroutine as anything that satisfies the trait @is_coroutine@ (as defined below) and is used as a coroutine.
+\begin{cfa}
 trait is_coroutine(dtype T) {
       void main(T& this);
 …
 forall( dtype T | is_coroutine(T) ) void suspend(T&);
 forall( dtype T | is_coroutine(T) ) void resume (T&);
+\end{cfacode}
+This ensures that an object is not a coroutine until \code{resume} is called on the object. Correspondingly, any object that is passed to \code{resume} is a coroutine since it must satisfy the \code{is_coroutine} trait to compile. The advantage of this approach is that users can easily create different types of coroutines, for example, changing the memory layout of a coroutine is trivial when implementing the \code{get_coroutine} routine. The \CFA keyword \code{coroutine} simply has the effect of implementing the getter and forward declarations required for users to implement the main routine.
+\end{cfa}
+This ensures that an object is not a coroutine until @resume@ is called on the object.
+Correspondingly, any object that is passed to @resume@ is a coroutine since it must satisfy the @is_coroutine@ trait to compile.
+The advantage of this approach is that users can easily create different types of coroutines, for example, changing the memory layout of a coroutine is trivial when implementing the @get_coroutine@ routine.
+The \CFA keyword @coroutine@ simply has the effect of implementing the getter and forward declarations required for users to implement the main routine.
 \begin{center}
 \begin{tabular}{c c c}
 \begin{cfacode}[tabsize=3]
+\begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
 coroutine MyCoroutine {
         int someValue;
 };
 \end{cfacode} & == & \begin{cfacode}[tabsize=3]
+\end{cfa} & == & \begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
 struct MyCoroutine {
         int someValue;
 …
 void main(struct MyCoroutine* this);
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{tabular}
 \end{center}
 …
 The combination of these two approaches allows users new to coroutining and concurrency to have an easy and concise specification, while more advanced users have tighter control on memory layout and initialization.
+\section{Thread Interface}\label{threads}
+The basic building blocks of multithreading in \CFA are \textbf{cfathread}. Both user and kernel threads are supported, where user threads are the concurrency mechanism and kernel threads are the parallel mechanism. User threads offer a flexible and lightweight interface. A thread can be declared using a struct declaration \code{thread} as follows:
+\begin{cfacode}
+\subsection{Thread Interface}\label{threads}
+The basic building blocks of multithreading in \CFA are \textbf{cfathread}.
+Both user and kernel threads are supported, where user threads are the concurrency mechanism and kernel threads are the parallel mechanism.
+User threads offer a flexible and lightweight interface.
+A thread can be declared using a struct declaration @thread@ as follows:
+\begin{cfa}
 thread foo {};
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 As for coroutines, the keyword is a thin wrapper around a \CFA trait:
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 trait is_thread(dtype T) {
       void ^?{}(T & mutex this);
 …
       thread_desc* get_thread(T & this);
 };
+\end{cfacode}
+Obviously, for this thread implementation to be useful it must run some user code. Several other threading interfaces use a function-pointer representation as the interface of threads (for example \Csharp~\cite{Csharp} and Scala~\cite{Scala}). However, this proposal considers that statically tying a \code{main} routine to a thread supersedes this approach. Since the \code{main} routine is already a special routine in \CFA (where the program begins), it is a natural extension of the semantics to use overloading to declare mains for different threads (the normal main being the main of the initial thread). As such the \code{main} routine of a thread can be defined as
+\begin{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
+Obviously, for this thread implementation to be useful it must run some user code.
+Several other threading interfaces use a function-pointer representation as the interface of threads (for example \Csharp~\cite{Csharp} and Scala~\cite{Scala}).
+However, this proposal considers that statically tying a @main@ routine to a thread supersedes this approach.
+Since the @main@ routine is already a special routine in \CFA (where the program begins), it is a natural extension of the semantics to use overloading to declare mains for different threads (the normal main being the main of the initial thread).
+As such the @main@ routine of a thread can be defined as
+\begin{cfa}
 thread foo {};
 …
         sout | "Hello World!" | endl;
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+In this example, threads of type \code{foo} start execution in the \code{void main(foo &)} routine, which prints \code{"Hello World!".} While this paper encourages this approach to enforce strongly typed programming, users may prefer to use the routine-based thread semantics for the sake of simplicity. With the static semantics it is trivial to write a thread type that takes a function pointer as a parameter and executes it on its stack asynchronously.
+\begin{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
+In this example, threads of type @foo@ start execution in the @void main(foo &)@ routine, which prints @"Hello World!".@ While this paper encourages this approach to enforce strongly typed programming, users may prefer to use the routine-based thread semantics for the sake of simplicity.
+With the static semantics it is trivial to write a thread type that takes a function pointer as a parameter and executes it on its stack asynchronously.
+\begin{cfa}
 typedef void (*voidFunc)(int);
 …
 void main(FuncRunner & this) {
         //thread starts here and runs the function
+        // thread starts here and runs the function
         this.func( this.arg );
+}
 …
         return 0?
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 A consequence of the strongly typed approach to main is that memory layout of parameters and return values to/from a thread are now explicitly specified in the \textbf{api}.
+Of course, for threads to be useful, it must be possible to start and stop threads and wait for them to complete execution. While using an \textbf{api} such as \code{fork} and \code{join} is relatively common in the literature, such an interface is unnecessary. Indeed, the simplest approach is to use \textbf{raii} principles and have threads \code{fork} after the constructor has completed and \code{join} before the destructor runs.
+\begin{cfacode}
+Of course, for threads to be useful, it must be possible to start and stop threads and wait for them to complete execution.
+While using an \textbf{api} such as @fork@ and @join@ is relatively common in the literature, such an interface is unnecessary.
+Indeed, the simplest approach is to use \textbf{raii} principles and have threads @fork@ after the constructor has completed and @join@ before the destructor runs.
+\begin{cfa}
 thread World;
 …
 void main() {
         World w;
         //Thread forks here
         //Printing "Hello " and "World!" are run concurrently
+        // Thread forks here
+        // Printing "Hello " and "World!" are run concurrently
         sout | "Hello " | endl;
         //Implicit join at end of scope
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+        // Implicit join at end of scope
+}
+\end{cfa}
 This semantic has several advantages over explicit semantics: a thread is always started and stopped exactly once, users cannot make any programming errors, and it naturally scales to multiple threads meaning basic synchronization is very simple.
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 thread MyThread {
         //...
 };
 //main
+// main
 void main(MyThread& this) {
         //...
 …
 void foo() {
         MyThread thrds[10];
         //Start 10 threads at the beginning of the scope
+        // Start 10 threads at the beginning of the scope
         DoStuff();
+        //Wait for the 10 threads to finish
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+However, one of the drawbacks of this approach is that threads always form a tree where nodes must always outlive their children, i.e., they are always destroyed in the opposite order of construction because of C scoping rules. This restriction is relaxed by using dynamic allocation, so threads can outlive the scope in which they are created, much like dynamically allocating memory lets objects outlive the scope in which they are created.
+\begin{cfacode}
+        // Wait for the 10 threads to finish
+}
+\end{cfa}
+However, one of the drawbacks of this approach is that threads always form a tree where nodes must always outlive their children, \ie they are always destroyed in the opposite order of construction because of C scoping rules.
+This restriction is relaxed by using dynamic allocation, so threads can outlive the scope in which they are created, much like dynamically allocating memory lets objects outlive the scope in which they are created.
+\begin{cfa}
 thread MyThread {
         //...
 …
         MyThread* long_lived;
+        {
                 //Start a thread at the beginning of the scope
+                // Start a thread at the beginning of the scope
                 MyThread short_lived;
                 //create another thread that will outlive the thread in this scope
+                // create another thread that will outlive the thread in this scope
                 long_lived = new MyThread;
                 DoStuff();
                 //Wait for the thread short_lived to finish
+                // Wait for the thread short_lived to finish
+        }
         DoMoreStuff();
         //Now wait for the long_lived to finish
+        // Now wait for the long_lived to finish
         delete long_lived;
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 …
 % ======================================================================
 % ======================================================================
+Several tools can be used to solve concurrency challenges. Since many of these challenges appear with the use of mutable shared state, some languages and libraries simply disallow mutable shared state (Erlang~\cite{Erlang}, Haskell~\cite{Haskell}, Akka (Scala)~\cite{Akka}). In these paradigms, interaction among concurrent objects relies on message passing~\cite{Thoth,Harmony,V-Kernel} or other paradigms closely relate to networking concepts (channels~\cite{CSP,Go} for example). However, in languages that use routine calls as their core abstraction mechanism, these approaches force a clear distinction between concurrent and non-concurrent paradigms (i.e., message passing versus routine calls). This distinction in turn means that, in order to be effective, programmers need to learn two sets of design patterns. While this distinction can be hidden away in library code, effective use of the library still has to take both paradigms into account.
+Approaches based on shared memory are more closely related to non-concurrent paradigms since they often rely on basic constructs like routine calls and shared objects. At the lowest level, concurrent paradigms are implemented as atomic operations and locks. Many such mechanisms have been proposed, including semaphores~\cite{Dijkstra68b} and path expressions~\cite{Campbell74}. However, for productivity reasons it is desirable to have a higher-level construct be the core concurrency paradigm~\cite{HPP:Study}.
+An approach that is worth mentioning because it is gaining in popularity is transactional memory~\cite{Herlihy93}. While this approach is even pursued by system languages like \CC~\cite{Cpp-Transactions}, the performance and feature set is currently too restrictive to be the main concurrency paradigm for system languages, which is why it was rejected as the core paradigm for concurrency in \CFA.
+One of the most natural, elegant, and efficient mechanisms for synchronization and communication, especially for shared-memory systems, is the \emph{monitor}. Monitors were first proposed by Brinch Hansen~\cite{Hansen73} and later described and extended by C.A.R.~Hoare~\cite{Hoare74}. Many programming languages---e.g., Concurrent Pascal~\cite{ConcurrentPascal}, Mesa~\cite{Mesa}, Modula~\cite{Modula-2}, Turing~\cite{Turing:old}, Modula-3~\cite{Modula-3}, NeWS~\cite{NeWS}, Emerald~\cite{Emerald}, \uC~\cite{Buhr92a} and Java~\cite{Java}---provide monitors as explicit language constructs. In addition, operating-system kernels and device drivers have a monitor-like structure, although they often use lower-level primitives such as semaphores or locks to simulate monitors. For these reasons, this project proposes monitors as the core concurrency construct.
+\section{Basics}
+Non-determinism requires concurrent systems to offer support for mutual-exclusion and synchronization. Mutual-exclusion is the concept that only a fixed number of threads can access a critical section at any given time, where a critical section is a group of instructions on an associated portion of data that requires the restricted access. On the other hand, synchronization enforces relative ordering of execution and synchronization tools provide numerous mechanisms to establish timing relationships among threads.
+\subsection{Mutual-Exclusion}
+As mentioned above, mutual-exclusion is the guarantee that only a fix number of threads can enter a critical section at once. However, many solutions exist for mutual exclusion, which vary in terms of performance, flexibility and ease of use. Methods range from low-level locks, which are fast and flexible but require significant attention to be correct, to  higher-level concurrency techniques, which sacrifice some performance in order to improve ease of use. Ease of use comes by either guaranteeing some problems cannot occur (e.g., being deadlock free) or by offering a more explicit coupling between data and corresponding critical section. For example, the \CC \code{std::atomic<T>} offers an easy way to express mutual-exclusion on a restricted set of operations (e.g., reading/writing large types atomically). Another challenge with low-level locks is composability. Locks have restricted composability because it takes careful organizing for multiple locks to be used while preventing deadlocks. Easing composability is another feature higher-level mutual-exclusion mechanisms often offer.
+\subsection{Synchronization}
+As with mutual-exclusion, low-level synchronization primitives often offer good performance and good flexibility at the cost of ease of use. Again, higher-level mechanisms often simplify usage by adding either better coupling between synchronization and data (e.g., message passing) or offering a simpler solution to otherwise involved challenges. As mentioned above, synchronization can be expressed as guaranteeing that event \textit{X} always happens before \textit{Y}. Most of the time, synchronization happens within a critical section, where threads must acquire mutual-exclusion in a certain order. However, it may also be desirable to guarantee that event \textit{Z} does not occur between \textit{X} and \textit{Y}. Not satisfying this property is called \textbf{barging}. For example, where event \textit{X} tries to effect event \textit{Y} but another thread acquires the critical section and emits \textit{Z} before \textit{Y}. The classic example is the thread that finishes using a resource and unblocks a thread waiting to use the resource, but the unblocked thread must compete to acquire the resource. Preventing or detecting barging is an involved challenge with low-level locks, which can be made much easier by higher-level constructs. This challenge is often split into two different methods, barging avoidance and barging prevention. Algorithms that use flag variables to detect barging threads are said to be using barging avoidance, while algorithms that baton-pass locks~\cite{Andrews89} between threads instead of releasing the locks are said to be using barging prevention.
+Several tools can be used to solve concurrency challenges.
+Since many of these challenges appear with the use of mutable shared state, some languages and libraries simply disallow mutable shared state (Erlang~\cite{Erlang}, Haskell~\cite{Haskell}, Akka (Scala)~\cite{Akka}).
+In these paradigms, interaction among concurrent objects relies on message passing~\cite{Thoth,Harmony,V-Kernel} or other paradigms closely relate to networking concepts (channels~\cite{CSP,Go} for example).
+However, in languages that use routine calls as their core abstraction mechanism, these approaches force a clear distinction between concurrent and non-concurrent paradigms (\ie message passing versus routine calls).
+This distinction in turn means that, in order to be effective, programmers need to learn two sets of design patterns.
+While this distinction can be hidden away in library code, effective use of the library still has to take both paradigms into account.
+Approaches based on shared memory are more closely related to non-concurrent paradigms since they often rely on basic constructs like routine calls and shared objects.
+At the lowest level, concurrent paradigms are implemented as atomic operations and locks.
+Many such mechanisms have been proposed, including semaphores~\cite{Dijkstra68b} and path expressions~\cite{Campbell74}.
+However, for productivity reasons it is desirable to have a higher-level construct be the core concurrency paradigm~\cite{Hochstein05}.
+An approach that is worth mentioning because it is gaining in popularity is transactional memory~\cite{Herlihy93}.
+While this approach is even pursued by system languages like \CC~\cite{Cpp-Transactions}, the performance and feature set is currently too restrictive to be the main concurrency paradigm for system languages, which is why it was rejected as the core paradigm for concurrency in \CFA.
+One of the most natural, elegant, and efficient mechanisms for synchronization and communication, especially for shared-memory systems, is the \emph{monitor}.
+Monitors were first proposed by Brinch Hansen~\cite{Hansen73} and later described and extended by C.A.R.~Hoare~\cite{Hoare74}.
+Many programming languages---\eg Concurrent Pascal~\cite{ConcurrentPascal}, Mesa~\cite{Mesa}, Modula~\cite{Modula-2}, Turing~\cite{Turing:old}, Modula-3~\cite{Modula-3}, NeWS~\cite{NeWS}, Emerald~\cite{Emerald}, \uC~\cite{Buhr92a} and Java~\cite{Java}---provide monitors as explicit language constructs.
+In addition, operating-system kernels and device drivers have a monitor-like structure, although they often use lower-level primitives such as semaphores or locks to simulate monitors.
+For these reasons, this project proposes monitors as the core concurrency construct.
+\subsection{Basics}
+Non-determinism requires concurrent systems to offer support for mutual-exclusion and synchronization.
+Mutual-exclusion is the concept that only a fixed number of threads can access a critical section at any given time, where a critical section is a group of instructions on an associated portion of data that requires the restricted access.
+On the other hand, synchronization enforces relative ordering of execution and synchronization tools provide numerous mechanisms to establish timing relationships among threads.
+\subsubsection{Mutual-Exclusion}
+As mentioned above, mutual-exclusion is the guarantee that only a fix number of threads can enter a critical section at once.
+However, many solutions exist for mutual exclusion, which vary in terms of performance, flexibility and ease of use.
+Methods range from low-level locks, which are fast and flexible but require significant attention to be correct, to  higher-level concurrency techniques, which sacrifice some performance in order to improve ease of use.
+Ease of use comes by either guaranteeing some problems cannot occur (\eg being deadlock free) or by offering a more explicit coupling between data and corresponding critical section.
+For example, the \CC @std::atomic<T>@ offers an easy way to express mutual-exclusion on a restricted set of operations (\eg reading/writing large types atomically).
+Another challenge with low-level locks is composability.
+Locks have restricted composability because it takes careful organizing for multiple locks to be used while preventing deadlocks.
+Easing composability is another feature higher-level mutual-exclusion mechanisms often offer.
+\subsubsection{Synchronization}
+As with mutual-exclusion, low-level synchronization primitives often offer good performance and good flexibility at the cost of ease of use.
+Again, higher-level mechanisms often simplify usage by adding either better coupling between synchronization and data (\eg message passing) or offering a simpler solution to otherwise involved challenges.
+As mentioned above, synchronization can be expressed as guaranteeing that event \textit{X} always happens before \textit{Y}.
+Most of the time, synchronization happens within a critical section, where threads must acquire mutual-exclusion in a certain order.
+However, it may also be desirable to guarantee that event \textit{Z} does not occur between \textit{X} and \textit{Y}.
+Not satisfying this property is called \textbf{barging}.
+For example, where event \textit{X} tries to effect event \textit{Y} but another thread acquires the critical section and emits \textit{Z} before \textit{Y}.
+The classic example is the thread that finishes using a resource and unblocks a thread waiting to use the resource, but the unblocked thread must compete to acquire the resource.
+Preventing or detecting barging is an involved challenge with low-level locks, which can be made much easier by higher-level constructs.
+This challenge is often split into two different methods, barging avoidance and barging prevention.
+Algorithms that use flag variables to detect barging threads are said to be using barging avoidance, while algorithms that baton-pass locks~\cite{Andrews89} between threads instead of releasing the locks are said to be using barging prevention.
 % ======================================================================
 …
 % ======================================================================
 % ======================================================================
+A \textbf{monitor} is a set of routines that ensure mutual-exclusion when accessing shared state. More precisely, a monitor is a programming technique that associates mutual-exclusion to routine scopes, as opposed to mutex locks, where mutual-exclusion is defined by lock/release calls independently of any scoping of the calling routine. This strong association eases readability and maintainability, at the cost of flexibility. Note that both monitors and mutex locks, require an abstract handle to identify them. This concept is generally associated with object-oriented languages like Java~\cite{Java} or \uC~\cite{uC++book} but does not strictly require OO semantics. The only requirement is the ability to declare a handle to a shared object and a set of routines that act on it:
+\begin{cfacode}
+A \textbf{monitor} is a set of routines that ensure mutual-exclusion when accessing shared state.
+More precisely, a monitor is a programming technique that associates mutual-exclusion to routine scopes, as opposed to mutex locks, where mutual-exclusion is defined by lock/release calls independently of any scoping of the calling routine.
+This strong association eases readability and maintainability, at the cost of flexibility.
+Note that both monitors and mutex locks, require an abstract handle to identify them.
+This concept is generally associated with object-oriented languages like Java~\cite{Java} or \uC~\cite{uC++book} but does not strictly require OO semantics.
+The only requirement is the ability to declare a handle to a shared object and a set of routines that act on it:
+\begin{cfa}
 typedef /*some monitor type*/ monitor;
 int f(monitor & m);
 int main() {
         monitor m;  //Handle m
         f(m);       //Routine using handle
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+        monitor m;  // Handle m
+        f(m);       // Routine using handle
+}
+\end{cfa}
 % ======================================================================
 …
 % ======================================================================
 % ======================================================================
+The above monitor example displays some of the intrinsic characteristics. First, it is necessary to use pass-by-reference over pass-by-value for monitor routines. This semantics is important, because at their core, monitors are implicit mutual-exclusion objects (locks), and these objects cannot be copied. Therefore, monitors are non-copy-able objects (\code{dtype}).
+Another aspect to consider is when a monitor acquires its mutual exclusion. For example, a monitor may need to be passed through multiple helper routines that do not acquire the monitor mutual-exclusion on entry. Passthrough can occur for generic helper routines (\code{swap}, \code{sort}, etc.) or specific helper routines like the following to implement an atomic counter:
+\begin{cfacode}
+The above monitor example displays some of the intrinsic characteristics.
+First, it is necessary to use pass-by-reference over pass-by-value for monitor routines.
+This semantics is important, because at their core, monitors are implicit mutual-exclusion objects (locks), and these objects cannot be copied.
+Therefore, monitors are non-copy-able objects (@dtype@).
+Another aspect to consider is when a monitor acquires its mutual exclusion.
+For example, a monitor may need to be passed through multiple helper routines that do not acquire the monitor mutual-exclusion on entry.
+Passthrough can occur for generic helper routines (@swap@, @sort@, \etc) or specific helper routines like the following to implement an atomic counter:
+\begin{cfa}
 monitor counter_t { /*...see section $\ref{data}$...*/ };
 void ?{}(counter_t & nomutex this); //constructor
 size_t ++?(counter_t & mutex this); //increment
 //need for mutex is platform dependent
 void ?{}(size_t * this, counter_t & mutex cnt); //conversion
 \end{cfacode}
+void ?{}(counter_t & nomutex this); // constructor
+size_t ++?(counter_t & mutex this); // increment
+// need for mutex is platform dependent
+void ?{}(size_t * this, counter_t & mutex cnt); // conversion
+\end{cfa}
 This counter is used as follows:
 \begin{center}
 \begin{tabular}{c @{\hskip 0.35in} c @{\hskip 0.35in} c}
 \begin{cfacode}
 //shared counter
+\begin{cfa}
+// shared counter
 counter_t cnt1, cnt2;
 //multiple threads access counter
+// multiple threads access counter
 thread 1 : cnt1++; cnt2++;
 thread 2 : cnt1++; cnt2++;
 …
         ...
 thread N : cnt1++; cnt2++;
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{tabular}
 \end{center}
+Notice how the counter is used without any explicit synchronization and yet supports thread-safe semantics for both reading and writing, which is similar in usage to the \CC template \code{std::atomic}.
+Here, the constructor (\code{?\{\}}) uses the \code{nomutex} keyword to signify that it does not acquire the monitor mutual-exclusion when constructing. This semantics is because an object not yet con\-structed should never be shared and therefore does not require mutual exclusion. Furthermore, it allows the implementation greater freedom when it initializes the monitor locking. The prefix increment operator uses \code{mutex} to protect the incrementing process from race conditions. Finally, there is a conversion operator from \code{counter_t} to \code{size_t}. This conversion may or may not require the \code{mutex} keyword depending on whether or not reading a \code{size_t} is an atomic operation.
+For maximum usability, monitors use \textbf{multi-acq} semantics, which means a single thread can acquire the same monitor multiple times without deadlock. For example, listing \ref{fig:search} uses recursion and \textbf{multi-acq} to print values inside a binary tree.
+Notice how the counter is used without any explicit synchronization and yet supports thread-safe semantics for both reading and writing, which is similar in usage to the \CC template @std::atomic@.
+Here, the constructor (@?{}@) uses the @nomutex@ keyword to signify that it does not acquire the monitor mutual-exclusion when constructing.
+This semantics is because an object not yet constructed should never be shared and therefore does not require mutual exclusion.
+Furthermore, it allows the implementation greater freedom when it initializes the monitor locking.
+The prefix increment operator uses @mutex@ to protect the incrementing process from race conditions.
+Finally, there is a conversion operator from @counter_t@ to @size_t@.
+This conversion may or may not require the @mutex@ keyword depending on whether or not reading a @size_t@ is an atomic operation.
+For maximum usability, monitors use \textbf{multi-acq} semantics, which means a single thread can acquire the same monitor multiple times without deadlock.
+For example, listing \ref{fig:search} uses recursion and \textbf{multi-acq} to print values inside a binary tree.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Recursive printing algorithm using \textbf{multi-acq}.},label={fig:search}]
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Recursive printing algorithm using \textbf{multi-acq}.},label={fig:search}]
 monitor printer { ... };
 struct tree {
 …
         print(p, t->right);
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
+Having both \code{mutex} and \code{nomutex} keywords can be redundant, depending on the meaning of a routine having neither of these keywords. For example, it is reasonable that it should default to the safest option (\code{mutex}) when given a routine without qualifiers \code{void foo(counter_t & this)}, whereas assuming \code{nomutex} is unsafe and may cause subtle errors. On the other hand, \code{nomutex} is the ``normal'' parameter behaviour, it effectively states explicitly that ``this routine is not special''. Another alternative is making exactly one of these keywords mandatory, which provides the same semantics but without the ambiguity of supporting routines with neither keyword. Mandatory keywords would also have the added benefit of being self-documented but at the cost of extra typing. While there are several benefits to mandatory keywords, they do bring a few challenges. Mandatory keywords in \CFA would imply that the compiler must know without doubt whether or not a parameter is a monitor or not. Since \CFA relies heavily on traits as an abstraction mechanism, the distinction between a type that is a monitor and a type that looks like a monitor can become blurred. For this reason, \CFA only has the \code{mutex} keyword and uses no keyword to mean \code{nomutex}.
+The next semantic decision is to establish when \code{mutex} may be used as a type qualifier. Consider the following declarations:
+\begin{cfacode}
+Having both @mutex@ and @nomutex@ keywords can be redundant, depending on the meaning of a routine having neither of these keywords.
+For example, it is reasonable that it should default to the safest option (@mutex@) when given a routine without qualifiers @void foo(counter_t & this)@, whereas assuming @nomutex@ is unsafe and may cause subtle errors.
+On the other hand, @nomutex@ is the ``normal'' parameter behaviour, it effectively states explicitly that ``this routine is not special''.
+Another alternative is making exactly one of these keywords mandatory, which provides the same semantics but without the ambiguity of supporting routines with neither keyword.
+Mandatory keywords would also have the added benefit of being self-documented but at the cost of extra typing.
+While there are several benefits to mandatory keywords, they do bring a few challenges.
+Mandatory keywords in \CFA would imply that the compiler must know without doubt whether or not a parameter is a monitor or not.
+Since \CFA relies heavily on traits as an abstraction mechanism, the distinction between a type that is a monitor and a type that looks like a monitor can become blurred.
+For this reason, \CFA only has the @mutex@ keyword and uses no keyword to mean @nomutex@.
+The next semantic decision is to establish when @mutex@ may be used as a type qualifier.
+Consider the following declarations:
+\begin{cfa}
 int f1(monitor & mutex m);
 int f2(const monitor & mutex m);
 …
 int f4(monitor * mutex m []);
 int f5(graph(monitor *) & mutex m);
+\end{cfacode}
+The problem is to identify which object(s) should be acquired. Furthermore, each object needs to be acquired only once. In the case of simple routines like \code{f1} and \code{f2} it is easy to identify an exhaustive list of objects to acquire on entry. Adding indirections (\code{f3}) still allows the compiler and programmer to identify which object is acquired. However, adding in arrays (\code{f4}) makes it much harder. Array lengths are not necessarily known in C, and even then, making sure objects are only acquired once becomes none-trivial. This problem can be extended to absurd limits like \code{f5}, which uses a graph of monitors. To make the issue tractable, this project imposes the requirement that a routine may only acquire one monitor per parameter and it must be the type of the parameter with at most one level of indirection (ignoring potential qualifiers). Also note that while routine \code{f3} can be supported, meaning that monitor \code{**m} is acquired, passing an array to this routine would be type-safe and yet result in undefined behaviour because only the first element of the array is acquired. However, this ambiguity is part of the C type-system with respects to arrays. For this reason, \code{mutex} is disallowed in the context where arrays may be passed:
+\begin{cfacode}
+int f1(monitor & mutex m);    //Okay : recommended case
+int f2(monitor * mutex m);    //Not Okay : Could be an array
+int f3(monitor mutex m []);  //Not Okay : Array of unknown length
+int f4(monitor ** mutex m);   //Not Okay : Could be an array
+int f5(monitor * mutex m []); //Not Okay : Array of unknown length
+\end{cfacode}
+Note that not all array functions are actually distinct in the type system. However, even if the code generation could tell the difference, the extra information is still not sufficient to extend meaningfully the monitor call semantic.
+Unlike object-oriented monitors, where calling a mutex member \emph{implicitly} acquires mutual-exclusion of the receiver object, \CFA uses an explicit mechanism to specify the object that acquires mutual-exclusion. A consequence of this approach is that it extends naturally to multi-monitor calls.
+\begin{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
+The problem is to identify which object(s) should be acquired.
+Furthermore, each object needs to be acquired only once.
+In the case of simple routines like @f1@ and @f2@ it is easy to identify an exhaustive list of objects to acquire on entry.
+Adding indirections (@f3@) still allows the compiler and programmer to identify which object is acquired.
+However, adding in arrays (@f4@) makes it much harder.
+Array lengths are not necessarily known in C, and even then, making sure objects are only acquired once becomes none-trivial.
+This problem can be extended to absurd limits like @f5@, which uses a graph of monitors.
+To make the issue tractable, this project imposes the requirement that a routine may only acquire one monitor per parameter and it must be the type of the parameter with at most one level of indirection (ignoring potential qualifiers).
+Also note that while routine @f3@ can be supported, meaning that monitor @**m@ is acquired, passing an array to this routine would be type-safe and yet result in undefined behaviour because only the first element of the array is acquired.
+However, this ambiguity is part of the C type-system with respects to arrays.
+For this reason, @mutex@ is disallowed in the context where arrays may be passed:
+\begin{cfa}
+int f1(monitor & mutex m);    // Okay : recommended case
+int f2(monitor * mutex m);    // Not Okay : Could be an array
+int f3(monitor mutex m []);  // Not Okay : Array of unknown length
+int f4(monitor ** mutex m);   // Not Okay : Could be an array
+int f5(monitor * mutex m []); // Not Okay : Array of unknown length
+\end{cfa}
+Note that not all array functions are actually distinct in the type system.
+However, even if the code generation could tell the difference, the extra information is still not sufficient to extend meaningfully the monitor call semantic.
+Unlike object-oriented monitors, where calling a mutex member \emph{implicitly} acquires mutual-exclusion of the receiver object, \CFA uses an explicit mechanism to specify the object that acquires mutual-exclusion.
+A consequence of this approach is that it extends naturally to multi-monitor calls.
+\begin{cfa}
 int f(MonitorA & mutex a, MonitorB & mutex b);
 …
 MonitorB b;
 f(a,b);
+\end{cfacode}
+While OO monitors could be extended with a mutex qualifier for multiple-monitor calls, no example of this feature could be found. The capability to acquire multiple locks before entering a critical section is called \emph{\textbf{bulk-acq}}. In practice, writing multi-locking routines that do not lead to deadlocks is tricky. Having language support for such a feature is therefore a significant asset for \CFA. In the case presented above, \CFA guarantees that the order of acquisition is consistent across calls to different routines using the same monitors as arguments. This consistent ordering means acquiring multiple monitors is safe from deadlock when using \textbf{bulk-acq}. However, users can still force the acquiring order. For example, notice which routines use \code{mutex}/\code{nomutex} and how this affects acquiring order:
+\begin{cfacode}
+void foo(A& mutex a, B& mutex b) { //acquire a & b
+\end{cfa}
+While OO monitors could be extended with a mutex qualifier for multiple-monitor calls, no example of this feature could be found.
+The capability to acquire multiple locks before entering a critical section is called \emph{\textbf{bulk-acq}}.
+In practice, writing multi-locking routines that do not lead to deadlocks is tricky.
+Having language support for such a feature is therefore a significant asset for \CFA.
+In the case presented above, \CFA guarantees that the order of acquisition is consistent across calls to different routines using the same monitors as arguments.
+This consistent ordering means acquiring multiple monitors is safe from deadlock when using \textbf{bulk-acq}.
+However, users can still force the acquiring order.
+For example, notice which routines use @mutex@/@nomutex@ and how this affects acquiring order:
+\begin{cfa}
+void foo(A& mutex a, B& mutex b) { // acquire a & b
         ...
+}
+void bar(A& mutex a, B& /*nomutex*/ b) { //acquire a
+        ... foo(a, b); ... //acquire b
+}
+void baz(A& /*nomutex*/ a, B& mutex b) { //acquire b
+        ... foo(a, b); ... //acquire a
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+The \textbf{multi-acq} monitor lock allows a monitor lock to be acquired by both \code{bar} or \code{baz} and acquired again in \code{foo}. In the calls to \code{bar} and \code{baz} the monitors are acquired in opposite order.
+However, such use leads to lock acquiring order problems. In the example above, the user uses implicit ordering in the case of function \code{foo} but explicit ordering in the case of \code{bar} and \code{baz}. This subtle difference means that calling these routines concurrently may lead to deadlock and is therefore undefined behaviour. As shown~\cite{Lister77}, solving this problem requires:
+void bar(A& mutex a, B& /*nomutex*/ b) { // acquire a
+        ... foo(a, b); ... // acquire b
+}
+void baz(A& /*nomutex*/ a, B& mutex b) { // acquire b
+        ... foo(a, b); ... // acquire a
+}
+\end{cfa}
+The \textbf{multi-acq} monitor lock allows a monitor lock to be acquired by both @bar@ or @baz@ and acquired again in @foo@.
+In the calls to @bar@ and @baz@ the monitors are acquired in opposite order.
+However, such use leads to lock acquiring order problems.
+In the example above, the user uses implicit ordering in the case of function @foo@ but explicit ordering in the case of @bar@ and @baz@.
+This subtle difference means that calling these routines concurrently may lead to deadlock and is therefore undefined behaviour.
+As shown~\cite{Lister77}, solving this problem requires:
 \begin{enumerate}
         \item Dynamically tracking the monitor-call order.
         \item Implement rollback semantics.
 \end{enumerate}
+While the first requirement is already a significant constraint on the system, implementing a general rollback semantics in a C-like language is still prohibitively complex~\cite{Dice10}. In \CFA, users simply need to be careful when acquiring multiple monitors at the same time or only use \textbf{bulk-acq} of all the monitors. While \CFA provides only a partial solution, most systems provide no solution and the \CFA partial solution handles many useful cases.
+While the first requirement is already a significant constraint on the system, implementing a general rollback semantics in a C-like language is still prohibitively complex~\cite{Dice10}.
+In \CFA, users simply need to be careful when acquiring multiple monitors at the same time or only use \textbf{bulk-acq} of all the monitors.
+While \CFA provides only a partial solution, most systems provide no solution and the \CFA partial solution handles many useful cases.
 For example, \textbf{multi-acq} and \textbf{bulk-acq} can be used together in interesting ways:
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 monitor bank { ... };
 …
         deposit( yourbank, me2you );
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+This example shows a trivial solution to the bank-account transfer problem~\cite{BankTransfer}. Without \textbf{multi-acq} and \textbf{bulk-acq}, the solution to this problem is much more involved and requires careful engineering.
+\subsection{\code{mutex} statement} \label{mutex-stmt}
+The call semantics discussed above have one software engineering issue: only a routine can acquire the mutual-exclusion of a set of monitor. \CFA offers the \code{mutex} statement to work around the need for unnecessary names, avoiding a major software engineering problem~\cite{2FTwoHardThings}. Table \ref{lst:mutex-stmt} shows an example of the \code{mutex} statement, which introduces a new scope in which the mutual-exclusion of a set of monitor is acquired. Beyond naming, the \code{mutex} statement has no semantic difference from a routine call with \code{mutex} parameters.
+\end{cfa}
+This example shows a trivial solution to the bank-account transfer problem~\cite{BankTransfer}.
+Without \textbf{multi-acq} and \textbf{bulk-acq}, the solution to this problem is much more involved and requires careful engineering.
+\subsection{\protect\lstinline|mutex| statement} \label{mutex-stmt}
+The call semantics discussed above have one software engineering issue: only a routine can acquire the mutual-exclusion of a set of monitor. \CFA offers the @mutex@ statement to work around the need for unnecessary names, avoiding a major software engineering problem~\cite{2FTwoHardThings}.
+Table \ref{f:mutex-stmt} shows an example of the @mutex@ statement, which introduces a new scope in which the mutual-exclusion of a set of monitor is acquired.
+Beyond naming, the @mutex@ statement has no semantic difference from a routine call with @mutex@ parameters.
 \begin{table}
 \begin{center}
 \begin{tabular}{|c|c|}
 function call & \code{mutex} statement \\
+function call & @mutex@ statement \\
 \hline
 \begin{cfacode}[tabsize=3]
+\begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
 monitor M {};
 void foo( M & mutex m1, M & mutex m2 ) {
         //critical section
+        // critical section
+}
 …
         foo( m1, m2 );
+}
 \end{cfacode}&\begin{cfacode}[tabsize=3]
+\end{cfa}&\begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
 monitor M {};
 void bar( M & m1, M & m2 ) {
         mutex(m1, m2) {
                 //critical section
+                // critical section
+        }
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{tabular}
 \end{center}
 \caption{Regular call semantics vs. \code{mutex} statement}
 \label{lst:mutex-stmt}
+\caption{Regular call semantics vs. \protect\lstinline|mutex| statement}
+\label{f:mutex-stmt}
 \end{table}
 …
 % ======================================================================
 % ======================================================================
+Once the call semantics are established, the next step is to establish data semantics. Indeed, until now a monitor is used simply as a generic handle but in most cases monitors contain shared data. This data should be intrinsic to the monitor declaration to prevent any accidental use of data without its appropriate protection. For example, here is a complete version of the counter shown in section \ref{call}:
+\begin{cfacode}
+Once the call semantics are established, the next step is to establish data semantics.
+Indeed, until now a monitor is used simply as a generic handle but in most cases monitors contain shared data.
+This data should be intrinsic to the monitor declaration to prevent any accidental use of data without its appropriate protection.
+For example, here is a complete version of the counter shown in section \ref{call}:
+\begin{cfa}
 monitor counter_t {
         int value;
 …
+}
 //need for mutex is platform dependent here
+// need for mutex is platform dependent here
 void ?{}(int * this, counter_t & mutex cnt) {
         *this = (int)cnt;
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+Like threads and coroutines, monitors are defined in terms of traits with some additional language support in the form of the \code{monitor} keyword. The monitor trait is:
+\begin{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
+Like threads and coroutines, monitors are defined in terms of traits with some additional language support in the form of the @monitor@ keyword.
+The monitor trait is:
+\begin{cfa}
 trait is_monitor(dtype T) {
         monitor_desc * get_monitor( T & );
         void ^?{}( T & mutex );
 };
+\end{cfacode}
+Note that the destructor of a monitor must be a \code{mutex} routine to prevent deallocation while a thread is accessing the monitor. As with any object, calls to a monitor, using \code{mutex} or otherwise, is undefined behaviour after the destructor has run.
+\end{cfa}
+Note that the destructor of a monitor must be a @mutex@ routine to prevent deallocation while a thread is accessing the monitor.
+As with any object, calls to a monitor, using @mutex@ or otherwise, is undefined behaviour after the destructor has run.
 % ======================================================================
 …
 % ======================================================================
 % ======================================================================
+In addition to mutual exclusion, the monitors at the core of \CFA's concurrency can also be used to achieve synchronization. With monitors, this capability is generally achieved with internal or external scheduling as in~\cite{Hoare74}. With \textbf{scheduling} loosely defined as deciding which thread acquires the critical section next, \textbf{internal scheduling} means making the decision from inside the critical section (i.e., with access to the shared state), while \textbf{external scheduling} means making the decision when entering the critical section (i.e., without access to the shared state). Since internal scheduling within a single monitor is mostly a solved problem, this paper concentrates on extending internal scheduling to multiple monitors. Indeed, like the \textbf{bulk-acq} semantics, internal scheduling extends to multiple monitors in a way that is natural to the user but requires additional complexity on the implementation side.
+In addition to mutual exclusion, the monitors at the core of \CFA's concurrency can also be used to achieve synchronization.
+With monitors, this capability is generally achieved with internal or external scheduling as in~\cite{Hoare74}.
+With \textbf{scheduling} loosely defined as deciding which thread acquires the critical section next, \textbf{internal scheduling} means making the decision from inside the critical section (\ie with access to the shared state), while \textbf{external scheduling} means making the decision when entering the critical section (\ie without access to the shared state).
+Since internal scheduling within a single monitor is mostly a solved problem, this paper concentrates on extending internal scheduling to multiple monitors.
+Indeed, like the \textbf{bulk-acq} semantics, internal scheduling extends to multiple monitors in a way that is natural to the user but requires additional complexity on the implementation side.
 First, here is a simple example of internal scheduling:
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 monitor A {
         condition e;
 …
 void foo(A& mutex a1, A& mutex a2) {
         ...
         //Wait for cooperation from bar()
+        // Wait for cooperation from bar()
         wait(a1.e);
         ...
 …
 void bar(A& mutex a1, A& mutex a2) {
         //Provide cooperation for foo()
+        // Provide cooperation for foo()
         ...
         //Unblock foo
+        // Unblock foo
         signal(a1.e);
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+There are two details to note here. First, \code{signal} is a delayed operation; it only unblocks the waiting thread when it reaches the end of the critical section. This semantics is needed to respect mutual-exclusion, i.e., the signaller and signalled thread cannot be in the monitor simultaneously. The alternative is to return immediately after the call to \code{signal}, which is significantly more restrictive. Second, in \CFA, while it is common to store a \code{condition} as a field of the monitor, a \code{condition} variable can be stored/created independently of a monitor. Here routine \code{foo} waits for the \code{signal} from \code{bar} before making further progress, ensuring a basic ordering.
+An important aspect of the implementation is that \CFA does not allow barging, which means that once function \code{bar} releases the monitor, \code{foo} is guaranteed to be the next thread to acquire the monitor (unless some other thread waited on the same condition). This guarantee offers the benefit of not having to loop around waits to recheck that a condition is met. The main reason \CFA offers this guarantee is that users can easily introduce barging if it becomes a necessity but adding barging prevention or barging avoidance is more involved without language support. Supporting barging prevention as well as extending internal scheduling to multiple monitors is the main source of complexity in the design and implementation of \CFA concurrency.
+\end{cfa}
+There are two details to note here.
+First, @signal@ is a delayed operation; it only unblocks the waiting thread when it reaches the end of the critical section.
+This semantics is needed to respect mutual-exclusion, \ie the signaller and signalled thread cannot be in the monitor simultaneously.
+The alternative is to return immediately after the call to @signal@, which is significantly more restrictive.
+Second, in \CFA, while it is common to store a @condition@ as a field of the monitor, a @condition@ variable can be stored/created independently of a monitor.
+Here routine @foo@ waits for the @signal@ from @bar@ before making further progress, ensuring a basic ordering.
+An important aspect of the implementation is that \CFA does not allow barging, which means that once function @bar@ releases the monitor, @foo@ is guaranteed to be the next thread to acquire the monitor (unless some other thread waited on the same condition).
+This guarantee offers the benefit of not having to loop around waits to recheck that a condition is met.
+The main reason \CFA offers this guarantee is that users can easily introduce barging if it becomes a necessity but adding barging prevention or barging avoidance is more involved without language support.
+Supporting barging prevention as well as extending internal scheduling to multiple monitors is the main source of complexity in the design and implementation of \CFA concurrency.
 % ======================================================================
 …
 % ======================================================================
 % ======================================================================
+It is easy to understand the problem of multi-monitor scheduling using a series of pseudo-code examples. Note that for simplicity in the following snippets of pseudo-code, waiting and signalling is done using an implicit condition variable, like Java built-in monitors. Indeed, \code{wait} statements always use the implicit condition variable as parameters and explicitly name the monitors (A and B) associated with the condition. Note that in \CFA, condition variables are tied to a \emph{group} of monitors on first use (called branding), which means that using internal scheduling with distinct sets of monitors requires one condition variable per set of monitors. The example below shows the simple case of having two threads (one for each column) and a single monitor A.
+It is easy to understand the problem of multi-monitor scheduling using a series of pseudo-code examples.
+Note that for simplicity in the following snippets of pseudo-code, waiting and signalling is done using an implicit condition variable, like Java built-in monitors.
+Indeed, @wait@ statements always use the implicit condition variable as parameters and explicitly name the monitors (A and B) associated with the condition.
+Note that in \CFA, condition variables are tied to a \emph{group} of monitors on first use (called branding), which means that using internal scheduling with distinct sets of monitors requires one condition variable per set of monitors.
+The example below shows the simple case of having two threads (one for each column) and a single monitor A.
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 thread 1
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 acquire A
         wait A
 release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 thread 2
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 acquire A
         signal A
 release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
+One thread acquires before waiting (atomically blocking and releasing A) and the other acquires before signalling. It is important to note here that both \code{wait} and \code{signal} must be called with the proper monitor(s) already acquired. This semantic is a logical requirement for barging prevention.
+One thread acquires before waiting (atomically blocking and releasing A) and the other acquires before signalling.
+It is important to note here that both @wait@ and @signal@ must be called with the proper monitor(s) already acquired.
+This semantic is a logical requirement for barging prevention.
 A direct extension of the previous example is a \textbf{bulk-acq} version:
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 acquire A & B
         wait A & B
 release A & B
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 acquire A & B
         signal A & B
 release A & B
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
+\noindent This version uses \textbf{bulk-acq} (denoted using the {\sf\&} symbol), but the presence of multiple monitors does not add a particularly new meaning. Synchronization happens between the two threads in exactly the same way and order. The only difference is that mutual exclusion covers a group of monitors. On the implementation side, handling multiple monitors does add a degree of complexity as the next few examples demonstrate.
+While deadlock issues can occur when nesting monitors, these issues are only a symptom of the fact that locks, and by extension monitors, are not perfectly composable. For monitors, a well-known deadlock problem is the Nested Monitor Problem~\cite{Lister77}, which occurs when a \code{wait} is made by a thread that holds more than one monitor. For example, the following pseudo-code runs into the nested-monitor problem:
+\noindent This version uses \textbf{bulk-acq} (denoted using the {\sf\&} symbol), but the presence of multiple monitors does not add a particularly new meaning.
+Synchronization happens between the two threads in exactly the same way and order.
+The only difference is that mutual exclusion covers a group of monitors.
+On the implementation side, handling multiple monitors does add a degree of complexity as the next few examples demonstrate.
+While deadlock issues can occur when nesting monitors, these issues are only a symptom of the fact that locks, and by extension monitors, are not perfectly composable.
+For monitors, a well-known deadlock problem is the Nested Monitor Problem~\cite{Lister77}, which occurs when a @wait@ is made by a thread that holds more than one monitor.
+For example, the following cfa-code runs into the nested-monitor problem:
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 acquire A
         acquire B
 …
         release B
 release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 acquire A
         acquire B
 …
         release B
 release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
+\noindent The \code{wait} only releases monitor \code{B} so the signalling thread cannot acquire monitor \code{A} to get to the \code{signal}. Attempting release of all acquired monitors at the \code{wait} introduces a different set of problems, such as releasing monitor \code{C}, which has nothing to do with the \code{signal}.
+However, for monitors as for locks, it is possible to write a program using nesting without encountering any problems if nesting is done correctly. For example, the next pseudo-code snippet acquires monitors {\sf A} then {\sf B} before waiting, while only acquiring {\sf B} when signalling, effectively avoiding the Nested Monitor Problem~\cite{Lister77}.
+\noindent The @wait@ only releases monitor @B@ so the signalling thread cannot acquire monitor @A@ to get to the @signal@.
+Attempting release of all acquired monitors at the @wait@ introduces a different set of problems, such as releasing monitor @C@, which has nothing to do with the @signal@.
+However, for monitors as for locks, it is possible to write a program using nesting without encountering any problems if nesting is done correctly.
+For example, the next cfa-code snippet acquires monitors {\sf A} then {\sf B} before waiting, while only acquiring {\sf B} when signalling, effectively avoiding the Nested Monitor Problem~\cite{Lister77}.
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 acquire A
         acquire B
 …
         release B
 release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 acquire B
 …
 release B
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
 …
 % ======================================================================
+A larger example is presented to show complex issues for \textbf{bulk-acq} and its implementation options are analyzed. Listing \ref{lst:int-bulk-pseudo} shows an example where \textbf{bulk-acq} adds a significant layer of complexity to the internal signalling semantics, and listing \ref{lst:int-bulk-cfa} shows the corresponding \CFA code to implement the pseudo-code in listing \ref{lst:int-bulk-pseudo}. For the purpose of translating the given pseudo-code into \CFA-code, any method of introducing a monitor is acceptable, e.g., \code{mutex} parameters, global variables, pointer parameters, or using locals with the \code{mutex} statement.
+\begin{figure}[!t]
+A larger example is presented to show complex issues for \textbf{bulk-acq} and its implementation options are analyzed.
+Figure~\ref{f:int-bulk-cfa} shows an example where \textbf{bulk-acq} adds a significant layer of complexity to the internal signalling semantics, and listing \ref{f:int-bulk-cfa} shows the corresponding \CFA code to implement the cfa-code in listing \ref{f:int-bulk-cfa}.
+For the purpose of translating the given cfa-code into \CFA-code, any method of introducing a monitor is acceptable, \eg @mutex@ parameters, global variables, pointer parameters, or using locals with the @mutex@ statement.
+\begin{figure}
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 Waiting thread
 \begin{pseudo}[numbers=left]
+\begin{cfa}[numbers=left]
 acquire A
         //Code Section 1
+        // Code Section 1
         acquire A & B
                 //Code Section 2
+                // Code Section 2
                 wait A & B
                 //Code Section 3
+                // Code Section 3
         release A & B
         //Code Section 4
+        // Code Section 4
 release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 Signalling thread
 \begin{pseudo}[numbers=left, firstnumber=10,escapechar=|]
+\begin{cfa}[numbers=left, firstnumber=10,escapechar=|]
 acquire A
         //Code Section 5
+        // Code Section 5
         acquire A & B
                 //Code Section 6
+                // Code Section 6
                 |\label{line:signal1}|signal A & B
                 //Code Section 7
+                // Code Section 7
         |\label{line:releaseFirst}|release A & B
         //Code Section 8
+        // Code Section 8
 |\label{line:lastRelease}|release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Internal scheduling with \textbf{bulk-acq}},label={lst:int-bulk-pseudo}]
 \end{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Internal scheduling with \textbf{bulk-acq}},label={f:int-bulk-cfa}]
+\end{cfa}
 \begin{center}
 \begin{cfacode}[xleftmargin=.4\textwidth]
+\begin{cfa}[xleftmargin=.4\textwidth]
 monitor A a;
 monitor B b;
 condition c;
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{center}
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 Waiting thread
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 mutex(a) {
         //Code Section 1
+        // Code Section 1
         mutex(a, b) {
                 //Code Section 2
+                // Code Section 2
                 wait(c);
                 //Code Section 3
+                // Code Section 3
+        }
         //Code Section 4
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+        // Code Section 4
+}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 Signalling thread
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 mutex(a) {
         //Code Section 5
+        // Code Section 5
         mutex(a, b) {
                 //Code Section 6
+                // Code Section 6
                 signal(c);
                 //Code Section 7
+                // Code Section 7
+        }
         //Code Section 8
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+        // Code Section 8
+}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Equivalent \CFA code for listing \ref{lst:int-bulk-pseudo}},label={lst:int-bulk-cfa}]
 \end{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Equivalent \CFA code for listing \ref{f:int-bulk-cfa}},label={f:int-bulk-cfa}]
+\end{cfa}
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 Waiter
 \begin{pseudo}[numbers=left]
+\begin{cfa}[numbers=left]
 acquire A
         acquire A & B
 …
         release A & B
 release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 Signaller
 \begin{pseudo}[numbers=left, firstnumber=6,escapechar=|]
+\begin{cfa}[numbers=left, firstnumber=6,escapechar=|]
 acquire A
         acquire A & B
                 signal A & B
         release A & B
         |\label{line:secret}|//Secretly keep B here
+        |\label{line:secret}|// Secretly keep B here
 release A
 //Wakeup waiter and transfer A & B
 \end{pseudo}
+// Wakeup waiter and transfer A & B
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Listing \ref{lst:int-bulk-pseudo}, with delayed signalling comments},label={lst:int-secret}]
 \end{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Figure~\ref{f:int-bulk-cfa}, with delayed signalling comments},label={f:int-secret}]
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
+The complexity begins at code sections 4 and 8 in listing \ref{lst:int-bulk-pseudo}, which are where the existing semantics of internal scheduling needs to be extended for multiple monitors. The root of the problem is that \textbf{bulk-acq} is used in a context where one of the monitors is already acquired, which is why it is important to define the behaviour of the previous pseudo-code. When the signaller thread reaches the location where it should ``release \code{A & B}'' (listing \ref{lst:int-bulk-pseudo} line \ref{line:releaseFirst}), it must actually transfer ownership of monitor \code{B} to the waiting thread. This ownership transfer is required in order to prevent barging into \code{B} by another thread, since both the signalling and signalled threads still need monitor \code{A}. There are three options:
+The complexity begins at code sections 4 and 8 in listing \ref{f:int-bulk-cfa}, which are where the existing semantics of internal scheduling needs to be extended for multiple monitors.
+The root of the problem is that \textbf{bulk-acq} is used in a context where one of the monitors is already acquired, which is why it is important to define the behaviour of the previous cfa-code.
+When the signaller thread reaches the location where it should ``release @A & B@'' (listing \ref{f:int-bulk-cfa} line \ref{line:releaseFirst}), it must actually transfer ownership of monitor @B@ to the waiting thread.
+This ownership transfer is required in order to prevent barging into @B@ by another thread, since both the signalling and signalled threads still need monitor @A@.
+There are three options:
 \subsubsection{Delaying Signals}
+The obvious solution to the problem of multi-monitor scheduling is to keep ownership of all locks until the last lock is ready to be transferred. It can be argued that that moment is when the last lock is no longer needed, because this semantics fits most closely to the behaviour of single-monitor scheduling. This solution has the main benefit of transferring ownership of groups of monitors, which simplifies the semantics from multiple objects to a single group of objects, effectively making the existing single-monitor semantic viable by simply changing monitors to monitor groups. This solution releases the monitors once every monitor in a group can be released. However, since some monitors are never released (e.g., the monitor of a thread), this interpretation means a group might never be released. A more interesting interpretation is to transfer the group until all its monitors are released, which means the group is not passed further and a thread can retain its locks.
+However, listing \ref{lst:int-secret} shows this solution can become much more complicated depending on what is executed while secretly holding B at line \ref{line:secret}, while avoiding the need to transfer ownership of a subset of the condition monitors. Listing \ref{lst:dependency} shows a slightly different example where a third thread is waiting on monitor \code{A}, using a different condition variable. Because the third thread is signalled when secretly holding \code{B}, the goal  becomes unreachable. Depending on the order of signals (listing \ref{lst:dependency} line \ref{line:signal-ab} and \ref{line:signal-a}) two cases can happen:
+\paragraph{Case 1: thread $\alpha$ goes first.} In this case, the problem is that monitor \code{A} needs to be passed to thread $\beta$ when thread $\alpha$ is done with it.
+\paragraph{Case 2: thread $\beta$ goes first.} In this case, the problem is that monitor \code{B} needs to be retained and passed to thread $\alpha$ along with monitor \code{A}, which can be done directly or possibly using thread $\beta$ as an intermediate.
+The obvious solution to the problem of multi-monitor scheduling is to keep ownership of all locks until the last lock is ready to be transferred.
+It can be argued that that moment is when the last lock is no longer needed, because this semantics fits most closely to the behaviour of single-monitor scheduling.
+This solution has the main benefit of transferring ownership of groups of monitors, which simplifies the semantics from multiple objects to a single group of objects, effectively making the existing single-monitor semantic viable by simply changing monitors to monitor groups.
+This solution releases the monitors once every monitor in a group can be released.
+However, since some monitors are never released (\eg the monitor of a thread), this interpretation means a group might never be released.
+A more interesting interpretation is to transfer the group until all its monitors are released, which means the group is not passed further and a thread can retain its locks.
+However, listing \ref{f:int-secret} shows this solution can become much more complicated depending on what is executed while secretly holding B at line \ref{line:secret}, while avoiding the need to transfer ownership of a subset of the condition monitors.
+Figure~\ref{f:dependency} shows a slightly different example where a third thread is waiting on monitor @A@, using a different condition variable.
+Because the third thread is signalled when secretly holding @B@, the goal  becomes unreachable.
+Depending on the order of signals (listing \ref{f:dependency} line \ref{line:signal-ab} and \ref{line:signal-a}) two cases can happen:
+\paragraph{Case 1: thread $\alpha$ goes first.} In this case, the problem is that monitor @A@ needs to be passed to thread $\beta$ when thread $\alpha$ is done with it.
+\paragraph{Case 2: thread $\beta$ goes first.} In this case, the problem is that monitor @B@ needs to be retained and passed to thread $\alpha$ along with monitor @A@, which can be done directly or possibly using thread $\beta$ as an intermediate.
 \\
+Note that ordering is not determined by a race condition but by whether signalled threads are enqueued in FIFO or FILO order. However, regardless of the answer, users can move line \ref{line:signal-a} before line \ref{line:signal-ab} and get the reverse effect for listing \ref{lst:dependency}.
+Note that ordering is not determined by a race condition but by whether signalled threads are enqueued in FIFO or FILO order.
+However, regardless of the answer, users can move line \ref{line:signal-a} before line \ref{line:signal-ab} and get the reverse effect for listing \ref{f:dependency}.
 In both cases, the threads need to be able to distinguish, on a per monitor basis, which ones need to be released and which ones need to be transferred, which means knowing when to release a group becomes complex and inefficient (see next section) and therefore effectively precludes this approach.
 …
 \begin{multicols}{3}
 Thread $\alpha$
 \begin{pseudo}[numbers=left, firstnumber=1]
+\begin{cfa}[numbers=left, firstnumber=1]
 acquire A
         acquire A & B
 …
         release A & B
 release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 Thread $\gamma$
 \begin{pseudo}[numbers=left, firstnumber=6, escapechar=|]
+\begin{cfa}[numbers=left, firstnumber=6, escapechar=|]
 acquire A
         acquire A & B
 …
         |\label{line:signal-a}|signal A
 |\label{line:release-a}|release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 Thread $\beta$
 \begin{pseudo}[numbers=left, firstnumber=12, escapechar=|]
+\begin{cfa}[numbers=left, firstnumber=12, escapechar=|]
 acquire A
         wait A
 |\label{line:release-aa}|release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Pseudo-code for the three thread example.},label={lst:dependency}]
 \end{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Pseudo-code for the three thread example.},label={f:dependency}]
+\end{cfa}
 \begin{center}
 \input{dependency}
 \end{center}
 \caption{Dependency graph of the statements in listing \ref{lst:dependency}}
+\caption{Dependency graph of the statements in listing \ref{f:dependency}}
 \label{fig:dependency}
 \end{figure}
+In listing \ref{lst:int-bulk-pseudo}, there is a solution that satisfies both barging prevention and mutual exclusion. If ownership of both monitors is transferred to the waiter when the signaller releases \code{A & B} and then the waiter transfers back ownership of \code{A} back to the signaller when it releases it, then the problem is solved (\code{B} is no longer in use at this point). Dynamically finding the correct order is therefore the second possible solution. The problem is effectively resolving a dependency graph of ownership requirements. Here even the simplest of code snippets requires two transfers and has a super-linear complexity. This complexity can be seen in listing \ref{lst:explosion}, which is just a direct extension to three monitors, requires at least three ownership transfer and has multiple solutions. Furthermore, the presence of multiple solutions for ownership transfer can cause deadlock problems if a specific solution is not consistently picked; In the same way that multiple lock acquiring order can cause deadlocks.
+In listing \ref{f:int-bulk-cfa}, there is a solution that satisfies both barging prevention and mutual exclusion.
+If ownership of both monitors is transferred to the waiter when the signaller releases @A & B@ and then the waiter transfers back ownership of @A@ back to the signaller when it releases it, then the problem is solved (@B@ is no longer in use at this point).
+Dynamically finding the correct order is therefore the second possible solution.
+The problem is effectively resolving a dependency graph of ownership requirements.
+Here even the simplest of code snippets requires two transfers and has a super-linear complexity.
+This complexity can be seen in listing \ref{f:explosion}, which is just a direct extension to three monitors, requires at least three ownership transfer and has multiple solutions.
+Furthermore, the presence of multiple solutions for ownership transfer can cause deadlock problems if a specific solution is not consistently picked; In the same way that multiple lock acquiring order can cause deadlocks.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 acquire A
         acquire B
 …
         release B
 release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 acquire A
         acquire B
 …
         release B
 release A
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Extension to three monitors of listing \ref{lst:int-bulk-pseudo}},label={lst:explosion}]
 \end{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Extension to three monitors of listing \ref{f:int-bulk-cfa}},label={f:explosion}]
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
+Given the three threads example in listing \ref{lst:dependency}, figure \ref{fig:dependency} shows the corresponding dependency graph that results, where every node is a statement of one of the three threads, and the arrows the dependency of that statement (e.g., $\alpha1$ must happen before $\alpha2$). The extra challenge is that this dependency graph is effectively post-mortem, but the runtime system needs to be able to build and solve these graphs as the dependencies unfold. Resolving dependency graphs being a complex and expensive endeavour, this solution is not the preferred one.
+Given the three threads example in listing \ref{f:dependency}, figure \ref{fig:dependency} shows the corresponding dependency graph that results, where every node is a statement of one of the three threads, and the arrows the dependency of that statement (\eg $\alpha1$ must happen before $\alpha2$).
+The extra challenge is that this dependency graph is effectively post-mortem, but the runtime system needs to be able to build and solve these graphs as the dependencies unfold.
+Resolving dependency graphs being a complex and expensive endeavour, this solution is not the preferred one.
 \subsubsection{Partial Signalling} \label{partial-sig}
+Finally, the solution that is chosen for \CFA is to use partial signalling. Again using listing \ref{lst:int-bulk-pseudo}, the partial signalling solution transfers ownership of monitor \code{B} at lines \ref{line:signal1} to the waiter but does not wake the waiting thread since it is still using monitor \code{A}. Only when it reaches line \ref{line:lastRelease} does it actually wake up the waiting thread. This solution has the benefit that complexity is encapsulated into only two actions: passing monitors to the next owner when they should be released and conditionally waking threads if all conditions are met. This solution has a much simpler implementation than a dependency graph solving algorithms, which is why it was chosen. Furthermore, after being fully implemented, this solution does not appear to have any significant downsides.
+Using partial signalling, listing \ref{lst:dependency} can be solved easily:
+Finally, the solution that is chosen for \CFA is to use partial signalling.
+Again using listing \ref{f:int-bulk-cfa}, the partial signalling solution transfers ownership of monitor @B@ at lines \ref{line:signal1} to the waiter but does not wake the waiting thread since it is still using monitor @A@.
+Only when it reaches line \ref{line:lastRelease} does it actually wake up the waiting thread.
+This solution has the benefit that complexity is encapsulated into only two actions: passing monitors to the next owner when they should be released and conditionally waking threads if all conditions are met.
+This solution has a much simpler implementation than a dependency graph solving algorithms, which is why it was chosen.
+Furthermore, after being fully implemented, this solution does not appear to have any significant downsides.
+Using partial signalling, listing \ref{f:dependency} can be solved easily:
 \begin{itemize}
         \item When thread $\gamma$ reaches line \ref{line:release-ab} it transfers monitor \code{B} to thread $\alpha$ and continues to hold monitor \code{A}.
         \item When thread $\gamma$ reaches line \ref{line:release-a}  it transfers monitor \code{A} to thread $\beta$  and wakes it up.
         \item When thread $\beta$  reaches line \ref{line:release-aa} it transfers monitor \code{A} to thread $\alpha$ and wakes it up.
+        \item When thread $\gamma$ reaches line \ref{line:release-ab} it transfers monitor @B@ to thread $\alpha$ and continues to hold monitor @A@.
+        \item When thread $\gamma$ reaches line \ref{line:release-a}  it transfers monitor @A@ to thread $\beta$  and wakes it up.
+        \item When thread $\beta$  reaches line \ref{line:release-aa} it transfers monitor @A@ to thread $\alpha$ and wakes it up.
 \end{itemize}
 …
 \begin{table}
 \begin{tabular}{|c|c|}
 \code{signal} & \code{signal_block} \\
+@signal@ & @signal_block@ \\
 \hline
+\begin{cfacode}[tabsize=3]
+monitor DatingService
+{
+        //compatibility codes
+\begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
+monitor DatingService {
+        // compatibility codes
         enum{ CCodes = 20 };
 …
 condition exchange;
+int girl(int phoneNo, int ccode)
+{
+        //no compatible boy ?
+        if(empty(boys[ccode]))
+        {
+                //wait for boy
+                wait(girls[ccode]);
+                //make phone number available
+                girlPhoneNo = phoneNo;
+                //wake boy from chair
+                signal(exchange);
+        }
+        else
+        {
+                //make phone number available
+                girlPhoneNo = phoneNo;
+                //wake boy
+                signal(boys[ccode]);
+                //sit in chair
+                wait(exchange);
+int girl(int phoneNo, int cfa) {
+        // no compatible boy ?
+        if(empty(boys[cfa])) {
+                wait(girls[cfa]);               // wait for boy
+                girlPhoneNo = phoneNo;          // make phone number available
+                signal(exchange);               // wake boy from chair
+        } else {
+                girlPhoneNo = phoneNo;          // make phone number available
+                signal(boys[cfa]);              // wake boy
+                wait(exchange);         // sit in chair
+        }
         return boyPhoneNo;
+}
+int boy(int phoneNo, int ccode)
+{
+        //same as above
+        //with boy/girl interchanged
+}
+\end{cfacode}&\begin{cfacode}[tabsize=3]
+monitor DatingService
+{
+        //compatibility codes
+        enum{ CCodes = 20 };
+int boy(int phoneNo, int cfa) {
+        // same as above
+        // with boy/girl interchanged
+}
+\end{cfa}&\begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
+monitor DatingService {
+        enum{ CCodes = 20 };    // compatibility codes
         int girlPhoneNo;
 …
 condition girls[CCodes];
 condition boys [CCodes];
+//exchange is not needed
+int girl(int phoneNo, int ccode)
+{
+        //no compatible boy ?
+        if(empty(boys[ccode]))
+        {
+                //wait for boy
+                wait(girls[ccode]);
+                //make phone number available
+                girlPhoneNo = phoneNo;
+                //wake boy from chair
+                signal(exchange);
+        }
+        else
+        {
+                //make phone number available
+                girlPhoneNo = phoneNo;
+                //wake boy
+                signal_block(boys[ccode]);
+                //second handshake unnecessary
+// exchange is not needed
+int girl(int phoneNo, int cfa) {
+        // no compatible boy ?
+        if(empty(boys[cfa])) {
+                wait(girls[cfa]);               // wait for boy
+                girlPhoneNo = phoneNo;          // make phone number available
+                signal(exchange);               // wake boy from chair
+        } else {
+                girlPhoneNo = phoneNo;          // make phone number available
+                signal_block(boys[cfa]);                // wake boy
+                // second handshake unnecessary
+        }
 …
+}
+int boy(int phoneNo, int ccode)
+{
+        //same as above
+        //with boy/girl interchanged
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+int boy(int phoneNo, int cfa) {
+        // same as above
+        // with boy/girl interchanged
+}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{tabular}
 \caption{Dating service example using \code{signal} and \code{signal_block}. }
+\caption{Dating service example using \protect\lstinline|signal| and \protect\lstinline|signal_block|. }
 \label{tbl:datingservice}
 \end{table}
+An important note is that, until now, signalling a monitor was a delayed operation. The ownership of the monitor is transferred only when the monitor would have otherwise been released, not at the point of the \code{signal} statement. However, in some cases, it may be more convenient for users to immediately transfer ownership to the thread that is waiting for cooperation, which is achieved using the \code{signal_block} routine.
+The example in table \ref{tbl:datingservice} highlights the difference in behaviour. As mentioned, \code{signal} only transfers ownership once the current critical section exits; this behaviour requires additional synchronization when a two-way handshake is needed. To avoid this explicit synchronization, the \code{condition} type offers the \code{signal_block} routine, which handles the two-way handshake as shown in the example. This feature removes the need for a second condition variables and simplifies programming. Like every other monitor semantic, \code{signal_block} uses barging prevention, which means mutual-exclusion is baton-passed both on the front end and the back end of the call to \code{signal_block}, meaning no other thread can acquire the monitor either before or after the call.
+An important note is that, until now, signalling a monitor was a delayed operation.
+The ownership of the monitor is transferred only when the monitor would have otherwise been released, not at the point of the @signal@ statement.
+However, in some cases, it may be more convenient for users to immediately transfer ownership to the thread that is waiting for cooperation, which is achieved using the @signal_block@ routine.
+The example in table \ref{tbl:datingservice} highlights the difference in behaviour.
+As mentioned, @signal@ only transfers ownership once the current critical section exits; this behaviour requires additional synchronization when a two-way handshake is needed.
+To avoid this explicit synchronization, the @condition@ type offers the @signal_block@ routine, which handles the two-way handshake as shown in the example.
+This feature removes the need for a second condition variables and simplifies programming.
+Like every other monitor semantic, @signal_block@ uses barging prevention, which means mutual-exclusion is baton-passed both on the front end and the back end of the call to @signal_block@, meaning no other thread can acquire the monitor either before or after the call.
 % ======================================================================
 …
 Internal Scheduling & External Scheduling & Go\\
 \hline
 \begin{ucppcode}[tabsize=3]
+\begin{uC++}[tabsize=3]
 _Monitor Semaphore {
         condition c;
 …
+        }
+}
 \end{ucppcode}&\begin{ucppcode}[tabsize=3]
+\end{uC++}&\begin{uC++}[tabsize=3]
 _Monitor Semaphore {
 …
+        }
+}
 \end{ucppcode}&\begin{gocode}[tabsize=3]
+\end{uC++}&\begin{Go}[tabsize=3]
 type MySem struct {
         inUse bool
 …
         s.inUse = false
         //This actually deadlocks
         //when single thread
+        // This actually deadlocks
+        // when single thread
         s.c <- false
+}
 \end{gocode}
+\end{Go}
 \end{tabular}
 \caption{Different forms of scheduling.}
 \label{tbl:sched}
 \end{table}
+This method is more constrained and explicit, which helps users reduce the non-deterministic nature of concurrency. Indeed, as the following examples demonstrate, external scheduling allows users to wait for events from other threads without the concern of unrelated events occurring. External scheduling can generally be done either in terms of control flow (e.g., Ada with \code{accept}, \uC with \code{_Accept}) or in terms of data (e.g., Go with channels). Of course, both of these paradigms have their own strengths and weaknesses, but for this project, control-flow semantics was chosen to stay consistent with the rest of the languages semantics. Two challenges specific to \CFA arise when trying to add external scheduling with loose object definitions and multiple-monitor routines. The previous example shows a simple use \code{_Accept} versus \code{wait}/\code{signal} and its advantages. Note that while other languages often use \code{accept}/\code{select} as the core external scheduling keyword, \CFA uses \code{waitfor} to prevent name collisions with existing socket \textbf{api}s.
+For the \code{P} member above using internal scheduling, the call to \code{wait} only guarantees that \code{V} is the last routine to access the monitor, allowing a third routine, say \code{isInUse()}, acquire mutual exclusion several times while routine \code{P} is waiting. On the other hand, external scheduling guarantees that while routine \code{P} is waiting, no other routine than \code{V} can acquire the monitor.
+This method is more constrained and explicit, which helps users reduce the non-deterministic nature of concurrency.
+Indeed, as the following examples demonstrate, external scheduling allows users to wait for events from other threads without the concern of unrelated events occurring.
+External scheduling can generally be done either in terms of control flow (\eg Ada with @accept@, \uC with @_Accept@) or in terms of data (\eg Go with channels).
+Of course, both of these paradigms have their own strengths and weaknesses, but for this project, control-flow semantics was chosen to stay consistent with the rest of the languages semantics.
+Two challenges specific to \CFA arise when trying to add external scheduling with loose object definitions and multiple-monitor routines.
+The previous example shows a simple use @_Accept@ versus @wait@/@signal@ and its advantages.
+Note that while other languages often use @accept@/@select@ as the core external scheduling keyword, \CFA uses @waitfor@ to prevent name collisions with existing socket \textbf{api}s.
+For the @P@ member above using internal scheduling, the call to @wait@ only guarantees that @V@ is the last routine to access the monitor, allowing a third routine, say @isInUse()@, acquire mutual exclusion several times while routine @P@ is waiting.
+On the other hand, external scheduling guarantees that while routine @P@ is waiting, no other routine than @V@ can acquire the monitor.
 % ======================================================================
 …
 % ======================================================================
 % ======================================================================
+In \uC, a monitor class declaration includes an exhaustive list of monitor operations. Since \CFA is not object oriented, monitors become both more difficult to implement and less clear for a user:
+\begin{cfacode}
+In \uC, a monitor class declaration includes an exhaustive list of monitor operations.
+Since \CFA is not object oriented, monitors become both more difficult to implement and less clear for a user:
+\begin{cfa}
 monitor A {};
 void f(A & mutex a);
 void g(A & mutex a) {
         waitfor(f); //Obvious which f() to wait for
+}
 void f(A & mutex a, int); //New different F added in scope
+        waitfor(f); // Obvious which f() to wait for
+}
+void f(A & mutex a, int); // New different F added in scope
 void h(A & mutex a) {
+        waitfor(f); //Less obvious which f() to wait for
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+Furthermore, external scheduling is an example where implementation constraints become visible from the interface. Here is the pseudo-code for the entering phase of a monitor:
+        waitfor(f); // Less obvious which f() to wait for
+}
+\end{cfa}
+Furthermore, external scheduling is an example where implementation constraints become visible from the interface.
+Here is the cfa-code for the entering phase of a monitor:
 \begin{center}
 \begin{tabular}{l}
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
         if monitor is free
                 enter
 …
         else
                 block
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{tabular}
 \end{center}
+For the first two conditions, it is easy to implement a check that can evaluate the condition in a few instructions. However, a fast check for \pscode{monitor accepts me} is much harder to implement depending on the constraints put on the monitors. Indeed, monitors are often expressed as an entry queue and some acceptor queue as in Figure~\ref{fig:ClassicalMonitor}.
+For the first two conditions, it is easy to implement a check that can evaluate the condition in a few instructions.
+However, a fast check for @monitor accepts me@ is much harder to implement depending on the constraints put on the monitors.
+Indeed, monitors are often expressed as an entry queue and some acceptor queue as in Figure~\ref{fig:ClassicalMonitor}.
 \begin{figure}
 …
 \end{figure}
+There are other alternatives to these pictures, but in the case of the left picture, implementing a fast accept check is relatively easy. Restricted to a fixed number of mutex members, N, the accept check reduces to updating a bitmask when the acceptor queue changes, a check that executes in a single instruction even with a fairly large number (e.g., 128) of mutex members. This approach requires a unique dense ordering of routines with an upper-bound and that ordering must be consistent across translation units. For OO languages these constraints are common, since objects only offer adding member routines consistently across translation units via inheritance. However, in \CFA users can extend objects with mutex routines that are only visible in certain translation unit. This means that establishing a program-wide dense-ordering among mutex routines can only be done in the program linking phase, and still could have issues when using dynamically shared objects.
+There are other alternatives to these pictures, but in the case of the left picture, implementing a fast accept check is relatively easy.
+Restricted to a fixed number of mutex members, N, the accept check reduces to updating a bitmask when the acceptor queue changes, a check that executes in a single instruction even with a fairly large number (\eg 128) of mutex members.
+This approach requires a unique dense ordering of routines with an upper-bound and that ordering must be consistent across translation units.
+For OO languages these constraints are common, since objects only offer adding member routines consistently across translation units via inheritance.
+However, in \CFA users can extend objects with mutex routines that are only visible in certain translation unit.
+This means that establishing a program-wide dense-ordering among mutex routines can only be done in the program linking phase, and still could have issues when using dynamically shared objects.
 The alternative is to alter the implementation as in Figure~\ref{fig:BulkMonitor}.
+Here, the mutex routine called is associated with a thread on the entry queue while a list of acceptable routines is kept separate. Generating a mask dynamically means that the storage for the mask information can vary between calls to \code{waitfor}, allowing for more flexibility and extensions. Storing an array of accepted function pointers replaces the single instruction bitmask comparison with dereferencing a pointer followed by a linear search. Furthermore, supporting nested external scheduling (e.g., listing \ref{lst:nest-ext}) may now require additional searches for the \code{waitfor} statement to check if a routine is already queued.
+Here, the mutex routine called is associated with a thread on the entry queue while a list of acceptable routines is kept separate.
+Generating a mask dynamically means that the storage for the mask information can vary between calls to @waitfor@, allowing for more flexibility and extensions.
+Storing an array of accepted function pointers replaces the single instruction bitmask comparison with dereferencing a pointer followed by a linear search.
+Furthermore, supporting nested external scheduling (\eg listing \ref{f:nest-ext}) may now require additional searches for the @waitfor@ statement to check if a routine is already queued.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Example of nested external scheduling},label={lst:nest-ext}]
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Example of nested external scheduling},label={f:nest-ext}]
 monitor M {};
 void foo( M & mutex a ) {}
 void bar( M & mutex b ) {
         //Nested in the waitfor(bar, c) call
+        // Nested in the waitfor(bar, c) call
         waitfor(foo, b);
+}
 …
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
+Note that in the right picture, tasks need to always keep track of the monitors associated with mutex routines, and the routine mask needs to have both a function pointer and a set of monitors, as is discussed in the next section. These details are omitted from the picture for the sake of simplicity.
+At this point, a decision must be made between flexibility and performance. Many design decisions in \CFA achieve both flexibility and performance, for example polymorphic routines add significant flexibility but inlining them means the optimizer can easily remove any runtime cost. Here, however, the cost of flexibility cannot be trivially removed. In the end, the most flexible approach has been chosen since it allows users to write programs that would otherwise be  hard to write. This decision is based on the assumption that writing fast but inflexible locks is closer to a solved problem than writing locks that are as flexible as external scheduling in \CFA.
+Note that in the right picture, tasks need to always keep track of the monitors associated with mutex routines, and the routine mask needs to have both a function pointer and a set of monitors, as is discussed in the next section.
+These details are omitted from the picture for the sake of simplicity.
+At this point, a decision must be made between flexibility and performance.
+Many design decisions in \CFA achieve both flexibility and performance, for example polymorphic routines add significant flexibility but inlining them means the optimizer can easily remove any runtime cost.
+Here, however, the cost of flexibility cannot be trivially removed.
+In the end, the most flexible approach has been chosen since it allows users to write programs that would otherwise be  hard to write.
+This decision is based on the assumption that writing fast but inflexible locks is closer to a solved problem than writing locks that are as flexible as external scheduling in \CFA.
 % ======================================================================
 …
 % ======================================================================
+External scheduling, like internal scheduling, becomes significantly more complex when introducing multi-monitor syntax. Even in the simplest possible case, some new semantics needs to be established:
+\begin{cfacode}
+External scheduling, like internal scheduling, becomes significantly more complex when introducing multi-monitor syntax.
+Even in the simplest possible case, some new semantics needs to be established:
+\begin{cfa}
 monitor M {};
 …
 void g(M & mutex b, M & mutex c) {
         waitfor(f); //two monitors M => unknown which to pass to f(M & mutex)
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+        waitfor(f); // two monitors M => unknown which to pass to f(M & mutex)
+}
+\end{cfa}
 The obvious solution is to specify the correct monitor as follows:
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 monitor M {};
 …
 void g(M & mutex a, M & mutex b) {
         //wait for call to f with argument b
+        // wait for call to f with argument b
         waitfor(f, b);
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+This syntax is unambiguous. Both locks are acquired and kept by \code{g}. When routine \code{f} is called, the lock for monitor \code{b} is temporarily transferred from \code{g} to \code{f} (while \code{g} still holds lock \code{a}). This behaviour can be extended to the multi-monitor \code{waitfor} statement as follows.
+\begin{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
+This syntax is unambiguous.
+Both locks are acquired and kept by @g@.
+When routine @f@ is called, the lock for monitor @b@ is temporarily transferred from @g@ to @f@ (while @g@ still holds lock @a@).
+This behaviour can be extended to the multi-monitor @waitfor@ statement as follows.
+\begin{cfa}
 monitor M {};
 …
 void g(M & mutex a, M & mutex b) {
         //wait for call to f with arguments a and b
+        // wait for call to f with arguments a and b
         waitfor(f, a, b);
+}
 \end{cfacode}
 Note that the set of monitors passed to the \code{waitfor} statement must be entirely contained in the set of monitors already acquired in the routine. \code{waitfor} used in any other context is undefined behaviour.
+\end{cfa}
+Note that the set of monitors passed to the @waitfor@ statement must be entirely contained in the set of monitors already acquired in the routine. @waitfor@ used in any other context is undefined behaviour.
 An important behaviour to note is when a set of monitors only match partially:
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 mutex struct A {};
 …
 void foo() {
         g(a1, b); //block on accept
+        g(a1, b); // block on accept
+}
 void bar() {
+        f(a2, b); //fulfill cooperation
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+While the equivalent can happen when using internal scheduling, the fact that conditions are specific to a set of monitors means that users have to use two different condition variables. In both cases, partially matching monitor sets does not wakeup the waiting thread. It is also important to note that in the case of external scheduling the order of parameters is irrelevant; \code{waitfor(f,a,b)} and \code{waitfor(f,b,a)} are indistinguishable waiting condition.
+% ======================================================================
+% ======================================================================
+\subsection{\code{waitfor} Semantics}
+% ======================================================================
+% ======================================================================
+Syntactically, the \code{waitfor} statement takes a function identifier and a set of monitors. While the set of monitors can be any list of expressions, the function name is more restricted because the compiler validates at compile time the validity of the function type and the parameters used with the \code{waitfor} statement. It checks that the set of monitors passed in matches the requirements for a function call. Listing \ref{lst:waitfor} shows various usages of the waitfor statement and which are acceptable. The choice of the function type is made ignoring any non-\code{mutex} parameter. One limitation of the current implementation is that it does not handle overloading, but overloading is possible.
+        f(a2, b); // fulfill cooperation
+}
+\end{cfa}
+While the equivalent can happen when using internal scheduling, the fact that conditions are specific to a set of monitors means that users have to use two different condition variables.
+In both cases, partially matching monitor sets does not wakeup the waiting thread.
+It is also important to note that in the case of external scheduling the order of parameters is irrelevant; @waitfor(f,a,b)@ and @waitfor(f,b,a)@ are indistinguishable waiting condition.
+% ======================================================================
+% ======================================================================
+\subsection{\protect\lstinline|waitfor| Semantics}
+% ======================================================================
+% ======================================================================
+Syntactically, the @waitfor@ statement takes a function identifier and a set of monitors.
+While the set of monitors can be any list of expressions, the function name is more restricted because the compiler validates at compile time the validity of the function type and the parameters used with the @waitfor@ statement.
+It checks that the set of monitors passed in matches the requirements for a function call.
+Figure~\ref{f:waitfor} shows various usages of the waitfor statement and which are acceptable.
+The choice of the function type is made ignoring any non-@mutex@ parameter.
+One limitation of the current implementation is that it does not handle overloading, but overloading is possible.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Various correct and incorrect uses of the waitfor statement},label={lst:waitfor}]
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Various correct and incorrect uses of the waitfor statement},label={f:waitfor}]
 monitor A{};
 monitor B{};
 …
         void (*fp)( A & mutex ) = f1;
         waitfor(f1, a1);     //Correct : 1 monitor case
         waitfor(f2, a1, b1); //Correct : 2 monitor case
         waitfor(f3, a1);     //Correct : non-mutex arguments are ignored
         waitfor(f1, *ap);    //Correct : expression as argument
         waitfor(f1, a1, b1); //Incorrect : Too many mutex arguments
         waitfor(f2, a1);     //Incorrect : Too few mutex arguments
         waitfor(f2, a1, a2); //Incorrect : Mutex arguments don't match
         waitfor(f1, 1);      //Incorrect : 1 not a mutex argument
         waitfor(f9, a1);     //Incorrect : f9 function does not exist
         waitfor(*fp, a1 );   //Incorrect : fp not an identifier
         waitfor(f4, a1);     //Incorrect : f4 ambiguous
         waitfor(f2, a1, b2); //Undefined behaviour : b2 not mutex
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+        waitfor(f1, a1);     // Correct : 1 monitor case
+        waitfor(f2, a1, b1); // Correct : 2 monitor case
+        waitfor(f3, a1);     // Correct : non-mutex arguments are ignored
+        waitfor(f1, *ap);    // Correct : expression as argument
+        waitfor(f1, a1, b1); // Incorrect : Too many mutex arguments
+        waitfor(f2, a1);     // Incorrect : Too few mutex arguments
+        waitfor(f2, a1, a2); // Incorrect : Mutex arguments don't match
+        waitfor(f1, 1);      // Incorrect : 1 not a mutex argument
+        waitfor(f9, a1);     // Incorrect : f9 function does not exist
+        waitfor(*fp, a1 );   // Incorrect : fp not an identifier
+        waitfor(f4, a1);     // Incorrect : f4 ambiguous
+        waitfor(f2, a1, b2); // Undefined behaviour : b2 not mutex
+}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
+Finally, for added flexibility, \CFA supports constructing a complex \code{waitfor} statement using the \code{or}, \code{timeout} and \code{else}. Indeed, multiple \code{waitfor} clauses can be chained together using \code{or}; this chain forms a single statement that uses baton pass to any function that fits one of the function+monitor set passed in. To enable users to tell which accepted function executed, \code{waitfor}s are followed by a statement (including the null statement \code{;}) or a compound statement, which is executed after the clause is triggered. A \code{waitfor} chain can also be followed by a \code{timeout}, to signify an upper bound on the wait, or an \code{else}, to signify that the call should be non-blocking, which checks for a matching function call already arrived and otherwise continues. Any and all of these clauses can be preceded by a \code{when} condition to dynamically toggle the accept clauses on or off based on some current state. Listing \ref{lst:waitfor2} demonstrates several complex masks and some incorrect ones.
+Finally, for added flexibility, \CFA supports constructing a complex @waitfor@ statement using the @or@, @timeout@ and @else@.
+Indeed, multiple @waitfor@ clauses can be chained together using @or@; this chain forms a single statement that uses baton pass to any function that fits one of the function+monitor set passed in.
+To enable users to tell which accepted function executed, @waitfor@s are followed by a statement (including the null statement @;@) or a compound statement, which is executed after the clause is triggered.
+A @waitfor@ chain can also be followed by a @timeout@, to signify an upper bound on the wait, or an @else@, to signify that the call should be non-blocking, which checks for a matching function call already arrived and otherwise continues.
+Any and all of these clauses can be preceded by a @when@ condition to dynamically toggle the accept clauses on or off based on some current state.
+Figure~\ref{f:waitfor2} demonstrates several complex masks and some incorrect ones.
 \begin{figure}
+\begin{cfacode}[caption={Various correct and incorrect uses of the or, else, and timeout clause around a waitfor statement},label={lst:waitfor2}]
+\lstset{language=CFA,deletedelim=**[is][]{`}{`}}
+\begin{cfa}
 monitor A{};
 …
 void foo( A & mutex a, bool b, int t ) {
+        //Correct : blocking case
+        waitfor(f1, a);
+        //Correct : block with statement
+        waitfor(f1, a) {
+        waitfor(f1, a);                                                 $\C{// Correct : blocking case}$
+        waitfor(f1, a) {                                                $\C{// Correct : block with statement}$
                 sout | "f1" | endl;
+        }
+        //Correct : block waiting for f1 or f2
+        waitfor(f1, a) {
+        waitfor(f1, a) {                                                $\C{// Correct : block waiting for f1 or f2}$
                 sout | "f1" | endl;
         } or waitfor(f2, a) {
                 sout | "f2" | endl;
+        }
+        //Correct : non-blocking case
+        waitfor(f1, a); or else;
+        //Correct : non-blocking case
+        waitfor(f1, a) {
+        waitfor(f1, a); or else;                                $\C{// Correct : non-blocking case}$
+        waitfor(f1, a) {                                                $\C{// Correct : non-blocking case}$
                 sout | "blocked" | endl;
         } or else {
                 sout | "didn't block" | endl;
+        }
+        //Correct : block at most 10 seconds
+        waitfor(f1, a) {
+        waitfor(f1, a) {                                                $\C{// Correct : block at most 10 seconds}$
                 sout | "blocked" | endl;
         } or timeout( 10`s) {
                 sout | "didn't block" | endl;
+        }
+        //Correct : block only if b == true
+        //if b == false, don't even make the call
+        // Correct : block only if b == true if b == false, don't even make the call
         when(b) waitfor(f1, a);
+        //Correct : block only if b == true
+        //if b == false, make non-blocking call
+        // Correct : block only if b == true if b == false, make non-blocking call
         waitfor(f1, a); or when(!b) else;
         //Correct : block only of t > 1
+        // Correct : block only of t > 1
         waitfor(f1, a); or when(t > 1) timeout(t); or else;
         //Incorrect : timeout clause is dead code
+        // Incorrect : timeout clause is dead code
         waitfor(f1, a); or timeout(t); or else;
+        //Incorrect : order must be
+        //waitfor [or waitfor... [or timeout] [or else]]
+        // Incorrect : order must be waitfor [or waitfor... [or timeout] [or else]]
         timeout(t); or waitfor(f1, a); or else;
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
+\caption{Correct and incorrect uses of the or, else, and timeout clause around a waitfor statement}
+\label{f:waitfor2}
 \end{figure}
 …
 % ======================================================================
 % ======================================================================
+An interesting use for the \code{waitfor} statement is destructor semantics. Indeed, the \code{waitfor} statement can accept any \code{mutex} routine, which includes the destructor (see section \ref{data}). However, with the semantics discussed until now, waiting for the destructor does not make any sense, since using an object after its destructor is called is undefined behaviour. The simplest approach is to disallow \code{waitfor} on a destructor. However, a more expressive approach is to flip ordering of execution when waiting for the destructor, meaning that waiting for the destructor allows the destructor to run after the current \code{mutex} routine, similarly to how a condition is signalled.
+An interesting use for the @waitfor@ statement is destructor semantics.
+Indeed, the @waitfor@ statement can accept any @mutex@ routine, which includes the destructor (see section \ref{data}).
+However, with the semantics discussed until now, waiting for the destructor does not make any sense, since using an object after its destructor is called is undefined behaviour.
+The simplest approach is to disallow @waitfor@ on a destructor.
+However, a more expressive approach is to flip ordering of execution when waiting for the destructor, meaning that waiting for the destructor allows the destructor to run after the current @mutex@ routine, similarly to how a condition is signalled.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Example of an executor which executes action in series until the destructor is called.},label={lst:dtor-order}]
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Example of an executor which executes action in series until the destructor is called.},label={f:dtor-order}]
 monitor Executer {};
 struct  Action;
 …
+        }
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
+For example, listing \ref{lst:dtor-order} shows an example of an executor with an infinite loop, which waits for the destructor to break out of this loop. Switching the semantic meaning introduces an idiomatic way to terminate a task and/or wait for its termination via destruction.
+For example, listing \ref{f:dtor-order} shows an example of an executor with an infinite loop, which waits for the destructor to break out of this loop.
+Switching the semantic meaning introduces an idiomatic way to terminate a task and/or wait for its termination via destruction.
 …
 % #       #     # #     # #     # ####### ####### ####### ####### ###  #####  #     #
 \section{Parallelism}
+Historically, computer performance was about processor speeds and instruction counts. However, with heat dissipation being a direct consequence of speed increase, parallelism has become the new source for increased performance~\cite{Sutter05, Sutter05b}. In this decade, it is no longer reasonable to create a high-performance application without caring about parallelism. Indeed, parallelism is an important aspect of performance and more specifically throughput and hardware utilization. The lowest-level approach of parallelism is to use \textbf{kthread} in combination with semantics like \code{fork}, \code{join}, etc. However, since these have significant costs and limitations, \textbf{kthread} are now mostly used as an implementation tool rather than a user oriented one. There are several alternatives to solve these issues that all have strengths and weaknesses. While there are many variations of the presented paradigms, most of these variations do not actually change the guarantees or the semantics, they simply move costs in order to achieve better performance for certain workloads.
+Historically, computer performance was about processor speeds and instruction counts.
+However, with heat dissipation being a direct consequence of speed increase, parallelism has become the new source for increased performance~\cite{Sutter05, Sutter05b}.
+In this decade, it is no longer reasonable to create a high-performance application without caring about parallelism.
+Indeed, parallelism is an important aspect of performance and more specifically throughput and hardware utilization.
+The lowest-level approach of parallelism is to use \textbf{kthread} in combination with semantics like @fork@, @join@, \etc.
+However, since these have significant costs and limitations, \textbf{kthread} are now mostly used as an implementation tool rather than a user oriented one.
+There are several alternatives to solve these issues that all have strengths and weaknesses.
+While there are many variations of the presented paradigms, most of these variations do not actually change the guarantees or the semantics, they simply move costs in order to achieve better performance for certain workloads.
 \section{Paradigms}
 \subsection{User-Level Threads}
+A direct improvement on the \textbf{kthread} approach is to use \textbf{uthread}. These threads offer most of the same features that the operating system already provides but can be used on a much larger scale. This approach is the most powerful solution as it allows all the features of multithreading, while removing several of the more expensive costs of kernel threads. The downside is that almost none of the low-level threading problems are hidden; users still have to think about data races, deadlocks and synchronization issues. These issues can be somewhat alleviated by a concurrency toolkit with strong guarantees, but the parallelism toolkit offers very little to reduce complexity in itself.
+A direct improvement on the \textbf{kthread} approach is to use \textbf{uthread}.
+These threads offer most of the same features that the operating system already provides but can be used on a much larger scale.
+This approach is the most powerful solution as it allows all the features of multithreading, while removing several of the more expensive costs of kernel threads.
+The downside is that almost none of the low-level threading problems are hidden; users still have to think about data races, deadlocks and synchronization issues.
+These issues can be somewhat alleviated by a concurrency toolkit with strong guarantees, but the parallelism toolkit offers very little to reduce complexity in itself.
 Examples of languages that support \textbf{uthread} are Erlang~\cite{Erlang} and \uC~\cite{uC++book}.
 \subsection{Fibers : User-Level Threads Without Preemption} \label{fibers}
+A popular variant of \textbf{uthread} is what is often referred to as \textbf{fiber}. However, \textbf{fiber} do not present meaningful semantic differences with \textbf{uthread}. The significant difference between \textbf{uthread} and \textbf{fiber} is the lack of \textbf{preemption} in the latter. Advocates of \textbf{fiber} list their high performance and ease of implementation as major strengths, but the performance difference between \textbf{uthread} and \textbf{fiber} is controversial, and the ease of implementation, while true, is a weak argument in the context of language design. Therefore this proposal largely ignores fibers.
+A popular variant of \textbf{uthread} is what is often referred to as \textbf{fiber}.
+However, \textbf{fiber} do not present meaningful semantic differences with \textbf{uthread}.
+The significant difference between \textbf{uthread} and \textbf{fiber} is the lack of \textbf{preemption} in the latter.
+Advocates of \textbf{fiber} list their high performance and ease of implementation as major strengths, but the performance difference between \textbf{uthread} and \textbf{fiber} is controversial, and the ease of implementation, while true, is a weak argument in the context of language design.
+Therefore this proposal largely ignores fibers.
 An example of a language that uses fibers is Go~\cite{Go}
 \subsection{Jobs and Thread Pools}
+An approach on the opposite end of the spectrum is to base parallelism on \textbf{pool}. Indeed, \textbf{pool} offer limited flexibility but at the benefit of a simpler user interface. In \textbf{pool} based systems, users express parallelism as units of work, called jobs, and a dependency graph (either explicit or implicit) that ties them together. This approach means users need not worry about concurrency but significantly limit the interaction that can occur among jobs. Indeed, any \textbf{job} that blocks also block the underlying worker, which effectively means the CPU utilization, and therefore throughput, suffers noticeably. It can be argued that a solution to this problem is to use more workers than available cores. However, unless the number of jobs and the number of workers are comparable, having a significant number of blocked jobs always results in idles cores.
+An approach on the opposite end of the spectrum is to base parallelism on \textbf{pool}.
+Indeed, \textbf{pool} offer limited flexibility but at the benefit of a simpler user interface.
+In \textbf{pool} based systems, users express parallelism as units of work, called jobs, and a dependency graph (either explicit or implicit) that ties them together.
+This approach means users need not worry about concurrency but significantly limit the interaction that can occur among jobs.
+Indeed, any \textbf{job} that blocks also block the underlying worker, which effectively means the CPU utilization, and therefore throughput, suffers noticeably.
+It can be argued that a solution to this problem is to use more workers than available cores.
+However, unless the number of jobs and the number of workers are comparable, having a significant number of blocked jobs always results in idles cores.
 The gold standard of this implementation is Intel's TBB library~\cite{TBB}.
 \subsection{Paradigm Performance}
+While the choice between the three paradigms listed above may have significant performance implications, it is difficult to pin down the performance implications of choosing a model at the language level. Indeed, in many situations one of these paradigms may show better performance but it all strongly depends on the workload. Having a large amount of mostly independent units of work to execute almost guarantees equivalent performance across paradigms and that the \textbf{pool}-based system has the best efficiency thanks to the lower memory overhead (i.e., no thread stack per job). However, interactions among jobs can easily exacerbate contention. User-level threads allow fine-grain context switching, which results in better resource utilization, but a context switch is more expensive and the extra control means users need to tweak more variables to get the desired performance. Finally, if the units of uninterrupted work are large, enough the paradigm choice is largely amortized by the actual work done.
+While the choice between the three paradigms listed above may have significant performance implications, it is difficult to pin down the performance implications of choosing a model at the language level.
+Indeed, in many situations one of these paradigms may show better performance but it all strongly depends on the workload.
+Having a large amount of mostly independent units of work to execute almost guarantees equivalent performance across paradigms and that the \textbf{pool}-based system has the best efficiency thanks to the lower memory overhead (\ie no thread stack per job).
+However, interactions among jobs can easily exacerbate contention.
+User-level threads allow fine-grain context switching, which results in better resource utilization, but a context switch is more expensive and the extra control means users need to tweak more variables to get the desired performance.
+Finally, if the units of uninterrupted work are large, enough the paradigm choice is largely amortized by the actual work done.
 \section{The \protect\CFA\ Kernel : Processors, Clusters and Threads}\label{kernel}
+A \textbf{cfacluster} is a group of \textbf{kthread} executed in isolation. \textbf{uthread} are scheduled on the \textbf{kthread} of a given \textbf{cfacluster}, allowing organization between \textbf{uthread} and \textbf{kthread}. It is important that \textbf{kthread} belonging to a same \textbf{cfacluster} have homogeneous settings, otherwise migrating a \textbf{uthread} from one \textbf{kthread} to the other can cause issues. A \textbf{cfacluster} also offers a pluggable scheduler that can optimize the workload generated by the \textbf{uthread}.
+\textbf{cfacluster} have not been fully implemented in the context of this paper. Currently \CFA only supports one \textbf{cfacluster}, the initial one.
+A \textbf{cfacluster} is a group of \textbf{kthread} executed in isolation. \textbf{uthread} are scheduled on the \textbf{kthread} of a given \textbf{cfacluster}, allowing organization between \textbf{uthread} and \textbf{kthread}.
+It is important that \textbf{kthread} belonging to a same \textbf{cfacluster} have homogeneous settings, otherwise migrating a \textbf{uthread} from one \textbf{kthread} to the other can cause issues.
+A \textbf{cfacluster} also offers a pluggable scheduler that can optimize the workload generated by the \textbf{uthread}.
+\textbf{cfacluster} have not been fully implemented in the context of this paper.
+Currently \CFA only supports one \textbf{cfacluster}, the initial one.
 \subsection{Future Work: Machine Setup}\label{machine}
+While this was not done in the context of this paper, another important aspect of clusters is affinity. While many common desktop and laptop PCs have homogeneous CPUs, other devices often have more heterogeneous setups. For example, a system using \textbf{numa} configurations may benefit from users being able to tie clusters and/or kernel threads to certain CPU cores. OS support for CPU affinity is now common~\cite{affinityLinux, affinityWindows, affinityFreebsd, affinityNetbsd, affinityMacosx}, which means it is both possible and desirable for \CFA to offer an abstraction mechanism for portable CPU affinity.
+While this was not done in the context of this paper, another important aspect of clusters is affinity.
+While many common desktop and laptop PCs have homogeneous CPUs, other devices often have more heterogeneous setups.
+For example, a system using \textbf{numa} configurations may benefit from users being able to tie clusters and/or kernel threads to certain CPU cores.
+OS support for CPU affinity is now common~\cite{affinityLinux, affinityWindows, affinityFreebsd, affinityNetbsd, affinityMacosx}, which means it is both possible and desirable for \CFA to offer an abstraction mechanism for portable CPU affinity.
 \subsection{Paradigms}\label{cfaparadigms}
+Given these building blocks, it is possible to reproduce all three of the popular paradigms. Indeed, \textbf{uthread} is the default paradigm in \CFA. However, disabling \textbf{preemption} on the \textbf{cfacluster} means \textbf{cfathread} effectively become \textbf{fiber}. Since several \textbf{cfacluster} with different scheduling policy can coexist in the same application, this allows \textbf{fiber} and \textbf{uthread} to coexist in the runtime of an application. Finally, it is possible to build executors for thread pools from \textbf{uthread} or \textbf{fiber}, which includes specialized jobs like actors~\cite{Actors}.
+Given these building blocks, it is possible to reproduce all three of the popular paradigms.
+Indeed, \textbf{uthread} is the default paradigm in \CFA.
+However, disabling \textbf{preemption} on the \textbf{cfacluster} means \textbf{cfathread} effectively become \textbf{fiber}.
+Since several \textbf{cfacluster} with different scheduling policy can coexist in the same application, this allows \textbf{fiber} and \textbf{uthread} to coexist in the runtime of an application.
+Finally, it is possible to build executors for thread pools from \textbf{uthread} or \textbf{fiber}, which includes specialized jobs like actors~\cite{Actors}.
 \section{Behind the Scenes}
+There are several challenges specific to \CFA when implementing concurrency. These challenges are a direct result of \textbf{bulk-acq} and loose object definitions. These two constraints are the root cause of most design decisions in the implementation. Furthermore, to avoid contention from dynamically allocating memory in a concurrent environment, the internal-scheduling design is (almost) entirely free of mallocs. This approach avoids the chicken and egg problem~\cite{Chicken} of having a memory allocator that relies on the threading system and a threading system that relies on the runtime. This extra goal means that memory management is a constant concern in the design of the system.
+The main memory concern for concurrency is queues. All blocking operations are made by parking threads onto queues and all queues are designed with intrusive nodes, where each node has pre-allocated link fields for chaining, to avoid the need for memory allocation. Since several concurrency operations can use an unbound amount of memory (depending on \textbf{bulk-acq}), statically defining information in the intrusive fields of threads is insufficient.The only way to use a variable amount of memory without requiring memory allocation is to pre-allocate large buffers of memory eagerly and store the information in these buffers. Conveniently, the call stack fits that description and is easy to use, which is why it is used heavily in the implementation of internal scheduling, particularly variable-length arrays. Since stack allocation is based on scopes, the first step of the implementation is to identify the scopes that are available to store the information, and which of these can have a variable-length array. The threads and the condition both have a fixed amount of memory, while \code{mutex} routines and blocking calls allow for an unbound amount, within the stack size.
+There are several challenges specific to \CFA when implementing concurrency.
+These challenges are a direct result of \textbf{bulk-acq} and loose object definitions.
+These two constraints are the root cause of most design decisions in the implementation.
+Furthermore, to avoid contention from dynamically allocating memory in a concurrent environment, the internal-scheduling design is (almost) entirely free of mallocs.
+This approach avoids the chicken and egg problem~\cite{Chicken} of having a memory allocator that relies on the threading system and a threading system that relies on the runtime.
+This extra goal means that memory management is a constant concern in the design of the system.
+The main memory concern for concurrency is queues.
+All blocking operations are made by parking threads onto queues and all queues are designed with intrusive nodes, where each node has pre-allocated link fields for chaining, to avoid the need for memory allocation.
+Since several concurrency operations can use an unbound amount of memory (depending on \textbf{bulk-acq}), statically defining information in the intrusive fields of threads is insufficient.The only way to use a variable amount of memory without requiring memory allocation is to pre-allocate large buffers of memory eagerly and store the information in these buffers.
+Conveniently, the call stack fits that description and is easy to use, which is why it is used heavily in the implementation of internal scheduling, particularly variable-length arrays.
+Since stack allocation is based on scopes, the first step of the implementation is to identify the scopes that are available to store the information, and which of these can have a variable-length array.
+The threads and the condition both have a fixed amount of memory, while @mutex@ routines and blocking calls allow for an unbound amount, within the stack size.
 Note that since the major contributions of this paper are extending monitor semantics to \textbf{bulk-acq} and loose object definitions, any challenges that are not resulting of these characteristics of \CFA are considered as solved problems and therefore not discussed.
 …
 % ======================================================================
+The first step towards the monitor implementation is simple \code{mutex} routines. In the single monitor case, mutual-exclusion is done using the entry/exit procedure in listing \ref{lst:entry1}. The entry/exit procedures do not have to be extended to support multiple monitors. Indeed it is sufficient to enter/leave monitors one-by-one as long as the order is correct to prevent deadlock~\cite{Havender68}. In \CFA, ordering of monitor acquisition relies on memory ordering. This approach is sufficient because all objects are guaranteed to have distinct non-overlapping memory layouts and mutual-exclusion for a monitor is only defined for its lifetime, meaning that destroying a monitor while it is acquired is undefined behaviour. When a mutex call is made, the concerned monitors are aggregated into a variable-length pointer array and sorted based on pointer values. This array persists for the entire duration of the mutual-exclusion and its ordering reused extensively.
+The first step towards the monitor implementation is simple @mutex@ routines.
+In the single monitor case, mutual-exclusion is done using the entry/exit procedure in listing \ref{f:entry1}.
+The entry/exit procedures do not have to be extended to support multiple monitors.
+Indeed it is sufficient to enter/leave monitors one-by-one as long as the order is correct to prevent deadlock~\cite{Havender68}.
+In \CFA, ordering of monitor acquisition relies on memory ordering.
+This approach is sufficient because all objects are guaranteed to have distinct non-overlapping memory layouts and mutual-exclusion for a monitor is only defined for its lifetime, meaning that destroying a monitor while it is acquired is undefined behaviour.
+When a mutex call is made, the concerned monitors are aggregated into a variable-length pointer array and sorted based on pointer values.
+This array persists for the entire duration of the mutual-exclusion and its ordering reused extensively.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 Entry
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 if monitor is free
         enter
 …
         block
 increment recursions
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 Exit
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 decrement recursion
 if recursion == 0
         if entry queue not empty
                 wake-up thread
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
 \begin{pseudo}[caption={Initial entry and exit routine for monitors},label={lst:entry1}]
 \end{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Initial entry and exit routine for monitors},label={f:entry1}]
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
 \subsection{Details: Interaction with polymorphism}
+Depending on the choice of semantics for when monitor locks are acquired, interaction between monitors and \CFA's concept of polymorphism can be more complex to support. However, it is shown that entry-point locking solves most of the issues.
+First of all, interaction between \code{otype} polymorphism (see Section~\ref{s:ParametricPolymorphism}) and monitors is impossible since monitors do not support copying. Therefore, the main question is how to support \code{dtype} polymorphism. It is important to present the difference between the two acquiring options: \textbf{callsite-locking} and entry-point locking, i.e., acquiring the monitors before making a mutex routine-call or as the first operation of the mutex routine-call. For example:
+\begin{table}[H]
+Depending on the choice of semantics for when monitor locks are acquired, interaction between monitors and \CFA's concept of polymorphism can be more complex to support.
+However, it is shown that entry-point locking solves most of the issues.
+First of all, interaction between @otype@ polymorphism (see Section~\ref{s:ParametricPolymorphism}) and monitors is impossible since monitors do not support copying.
+Therefore, the main question is how to support @dtype@ polymorphism.
+It is important to present the difference between the two acquiring options: \textbf{callsite-locking} and entry-point locking, \ie acquiring the monitors before making a mutex routine-call or as the first operation of the mutex routine-call.
+For example:
+\begin{table}
 \begin{center}
 \begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|}
 Mutex & \textbf{callsite-locking} & \textbf{entry-point-locking} \\
 call & pseudo-code & pseudo-code \\
+call & cfa-code & cfa-code \\
 \hline
 \begin{cfacode}[tabsize=3]
+\begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
 void foo(monitor& mutex a){
         //Do Work
+        // Do Work
         //...
 …
+}
 \end{cfacode} & \begin{pseudo}[tabsize=3]
+\end{cfa} & \begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
 foo(& a) {
         //Do Work
+        // Do Work
         //...
 …
         release(a);
+}
 \end{pseudo} & \begin{pseudo}[tabsize=3]
+\end{cfa} & \begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
 foo(& a) {
         acquire(a);
         //Do Work
+        // Do Work
         //...
         release(a);
 …
+}
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{tabular}
 \end{center}
 …
 \end{table}
 Note the \code{mutex} keyword relies on the type system, which means that in cases where a generic monitor-routine is desired, writing the mutex routine is possible with the proper trait, e.g.:
 \begin{cfacode}
 //Incorrect: T may not be monitor
+Note the @mutex@ keyword relies on the type system, which means that in cases where a generic monitor-routine is desired, writing the mutex routine is possible with the proper trait, \eg:
+\begin{cfa}
+// Incorrect: T may not be monitor
 forall(dtype T)
 void foo(T * mutex t);
 //Correct: this function only works on monitors (any monitor)
+// Correct: this function only works on monitors (any monitor)
 forall(dtype T | is_monitor(T))
 void bar(T * mutex t));
+\end{cfacode}
+Both entry point and \textbf{callsite-locking} are feasible implementations. The current \CFA implementation uses entry-point locking because it requires less work when using \textbf{raii}, effectively transferring the burden of implementation to object construction/destruction. It is harder to use \textbf{raii} for call-site locking, as it does not necessarily have an existing scope that matches exactly the scope of the mutual exclusion, i.e., the function body. For example, the monitor call can appear in the middle of an expression. Furthermore, entry-point locking requires less code generation since any useful routine is called multiple times but there is only one entry point for many call sites.
+\end{cfa}
+Both entry point and \textbf{callsite-locking} are feasible implementations.
+The current \CFA implementation uses entry-point locking because it requires less work when using \textbf{raii}, effectively transferring the burden of implementation to object construction/destruction.
+It is harder to use \textbf{raii} for call-site locking, as it does not necessarily have an existing scope that matches exactly the scope of the mutual exclusion, \ie the function body.
+For example, the monitor call can appear in the middle of an expression.
+Furthermore, entry-point locking requires less code generation since any useful routine is called multiple times but there is only one entry point for many call sites.
 % ======================================================================
 …
 % ======================================================================
+Figure \ref{fig:system1} shows a high-level picture if the \CFA runtime system in regards to concurrency. Each component of the picture is explained in detail in the flowing sections.
+Figure \ref{fig:system1} shows a high-level picture if the \CFA runtime system in regards to concurrency.
+Each component of the picture is explained in detail in the flowing sections.
 \begin{figure}
 …
 \subsection{Processors}
+Parallelism in \CFA is built around using processors to specify how much parallelism is desired. \CFA processors are object wrappers around kernel threads, specifically \texttt{pthread}s in the current implementation of \CFA. Indeed, any parallelism must go through operating-system libraries. However, \textbf{uthread} are still the main source of concurrency, processors are simply the underlying source of parallelism. Indeed, processor \textbf{kthread} simply fetch a \textbf{uthread} from the scheduler and run it; they are effectively executers for user-threads. The main benefit of this approach is that it offers a well-defined boundary between kernel code and user code, for example, kernel thread quiescing, scheduling and interrupt handling. Processors internally use coroutines to take advantage of the existing context-switching semantics.
+Parallelism in \CFA is built around using processors to specify how much parallelism is desired. \CFA processors are object wrappers around kernel threads, specifically @pthread@s in the current implementation of \CFA.
+Indeed, any parallelism must go through operating-system libraries.
+However, \textbf{uthread} are still the main source of concurrency, processors are simply the underlying source of parallelism.
+Indeed, processor \textbf{kthread} simply fetch a \textbf{uthread} from the scheduler and run it; they are effectively executers for user-threads.
+The main benefit of this approach is that it offers a well-defined boundary between kernel code and user code, for example, kernel thread quiescing, scheduling and interrupt handling.
+Processors internally use coroutines to take advantage of the existing context-switching semantics.
 \subsection{Stack Management}
+One of the challenges of this system is to reduce the footprint as much as possible. Specifically, all \texttt{pthread}s created also have a stack created with them, which should be used as much as possible. Normally, coroutines also create their own stack to run on, however, in the case of the coroutines used for processors, these coroutines run directly on the \textbf{kthread} stack, effectively stealing the processor stack. The exception to this rule is the Main Processor, i.e., the initial \textbf{kthread} that is given to any program. In order to respect C user expectations, the stack of the initial kernel thread, the main stack of the program, is used by the main user thread rather than the main processor, which can grow very large.
+One of the challenges of this system is to reduce the footprint as much as possible.
+Specifically, all @pthread@s created also have a stack created with them, which should be used as much as possible.
+Normally, coroutines also create their own stack to run on, however, in the case of the coroutines used for processors, these coroutines run directly on the \textbf{kthread} stack, effectively stealing the processor stack.
+The exception to this rule is the Main Processor, \ie the initial \textbf{kthread} that is given to any program.
+In order to respect C user expectations, the stack of the initial kernel thread, the main stack of the program, is used by the main user thread rather than the main processor, which can grow very large.
 \subsection{Context Switching}
+As mentioned in section \ref{coroutine}, coroutines are a stepping stone for implementing threading, because they share the same mechanism for context-switching between different stacks. To improve performance and simplicity, context-switching is implemented using the following assumption: all context-switches happen inside a specific function call. This assumption means that the context-switch only has to copy the callee-saved registers onto the stack and then switch the stack registers with the ones of the target coroutine/thread. Note that the instruction pointer can be left untouched since the context-switch is always inside the same function. Threads, however, do not context-switch between each other directly. They context-switch to the scheduler. This method is called a 2-step context-switch and has the advantage of having a clear distinction between user code and the kernel where scheduling and other system operations happen. Obviously, this doubles the context-switch cost because threads must context-switch to an intermediate stack. The alternative 1-step context-switch uses the stack of the ``from'' thread to schedule and then context-switches directly to the ``to'' thread. However, the performance of the 2-step context-switch is still superior to a \code{pthread_yield} (see section \ref{results}). Additionally, for users in need for optimal performance, it is important to note that having a 2-step context-switch as the default does not prevent \CFA from offering a 1-step context-switch (akin to the Microsoft \code{SwitchToFiber}~\cite{switchToWindows} routine). This option is not currently present in \CFA, but the changes required to add it are strictly additive.
+As mentioned in section \ref{coroutine}, coroutines are a stepping stone for implementing threading, because they share the same mechanism for context-switching between different stacks.
+To improve performance and simplicity, context-switching is implemented using the following assumption: all context-switches happen inside a specific function call.
+This assumption means that the context-switch only has to copy the callee-saved registers onto the stack and then switch the stack registers with the ones of the target coroutine/thread.
+Note that the instruction pointer can be left untouched since the context-switch is always inside the same function.
+Threads, however, do not context-switch between each other directly.
+They context-switch to the scheduler.
+This method is called a 2-step context-switch and has the advantage of having a clear distinction between user code and the kernel where scheduling and other system operations happen.
+Obviously, this doubles the context-switch cost because threads must context-switch to an intermediate stack.
+The alternative 1-step context-switch uses the stack of the ``from'' thread to schedule and then context-switches directly to the ``to'' thread.
+However, the performance of the 2-step context-switch is still superior to a @pthread_yield@ (see section \ref{results}).
+Additionally, for users in need for optimal performance, it is important to note that having a 2-step context-switch as the default does not prevent \CFA from offering a 1-step context-switch (akin to the Microsoft @SwitchToFiber@~\cite{switchToWindows} routine).
+This option is not currently present in \CFA, but the changes required to add it are strictly additive.
 \subsection{Preemption} \label{preemption}
+Finally, an important aspect for any complete threading system is preemption. As mentioned in section \ref{basics}, preemption introduces an extra degree of uncertainty, which enables users to have multiple threads interleave transparently, rather than having to cooperate among threads for proper scheduling and CPU distribution. Indeed, preemption is desirable because it adds a degree of isolation among threads. In a fully cooperative system, any thread that runs a long loop can starve other threads, while in a preemptive system, starvation can still occur but it does not rely on every thread having to yield or block on a regular basis, which reduces significantly a programmer burden. Obviously, preemption is not optimal for every workload. However any preemptive system can become a cooperative system by making the time slices extremely large. Therefore, \CFA uses a preemptive threading system.
+Preemption in \CFA\footnote{Note that the implementation of preemption is strongly tied with the underlying threading system. For this reason, only the Linux implementation is cover, \CFA does not run on Windows at the time of writting} is based on kernel timers, which are used to run a discrete-event simulation. Every processor keeps track of the current time and registers an expiration time with the preemption system. When the preemption system receives a change in preemption, it inserts the time in a sorted order and sets a kernel timer for the closest one, effectively stepping through preemption events on each signal sent by the timer. These timers use the Linux signal {\tt SIGALRM}, which is delivered to the process rather than the kernel-thread. This results in an implementation problem, because when delivering signals to a process, the kernel can deliver the signal to any kernel thread for which the signal is not blocked, i.e.:
+Finally, an important aspect for any complete threading system is preemption.
+As mentioned in section \ref{basics}, preemption introduces an extra degree of uncertainty, which enables users to have multiple threads interleave transparently, rather than having to cooperate among threads for proper scheduling and CPU distribution.
+Indeed, preemption is desirable because it adds a degree of isolation among threads.
+In a fully cooperative system, any thread that runs a long loop can starve other threads, while in a preemptive system, starvation can still occur but it does not rely on every thread having to yield or block on a regular basis, which reduces significantly a programmer burden.
+Obviously, preemption is not optimal for every workload.
+However any preemptive system can become a cooperative system by making the time slices extremely large.
+Therefore, \CFA uses a preemptive threading system.
+Preemption in \CFA\footnote{Note that the implementation of preemption is strongly tied with the underlying threading system.
+For this reason, only the Linux implementation is cover, \CFA does not run on Windows at the time of writting} is based on kernel timers, which are used to run a discrete-event simulation.
+Every processor keeps track of the current time and registers an expiration time with the preemption system.
+When the preemption system receives a change in preemption, it inserts the time in a sorted order and sets a kernel timer for the closest one, effectively stepping through preemption events on each signal sent by the timer.
+These timers use the Linux signal {\tt SIGALRM}, which is delivered to the process rather than the kernel-thread.
+This results in an implementation problem, because when delivering signals to a process, the kernel can deliver the signal to any kernel thread for which the signal is not blocked, \ie:
 \begin{quote}
+A process-directed signal may be delivered to any one of the threads that does not currently have the signal blocked. If more than one of the threads has the signal unblocked, then the kernel chooses an arbitrary thread to which to deliver the signal.
+A process-directed signal may be delivered to any one of the threads that does not currently have the signal blocked.
+If more than one of the threads has the signal unblocked, then the kernel chooses an arbitrary thread to which to deliver the signal.
 SIGNAL(7) - Linux Programmer's Manual
 \end{quote}
 For the sake of simplicity, and in order to prevent the case of having two threads receiving alarms simultaneously, \CFA programs block the {\tt SIGALRM} signal on every kernel thread except one.
+Now because of how involuntary context-switches are handled, the kernel thread handling {\tt SIGALRM} cannot also be a processor thread. Hence, involuntary context-switching is done by sending signal {\tt SIGUSR1} to the corresponding proces\-sor and having the thread yield from inside the signal handler. This approach effectively context-switches away from the signal handler back to the kernel and the signal handler frame is eventually unwound when the thread is scheduled again. As a result, a signal handler can start on one kernel thread and terminate on a second kernel thread (but the same user thread). It is important to note that signal handlers save and restore signal masks because user-thread migration can cause a signal mask to migrate from one kernel thread to another. This behaviour is only a problem if all kernel threads, among which a user thread can migrate, differ in terms of signal masks\footnote{Sadly, official POSIX documentation is silent on what distinguishes ``async-signal-safe'' functions from other functions.}. However, since the kernel thread handling preemption requires a different signal mask, executing user threads on the kernel-alarm thread can cause deadlocks. For this reason, the alarm thread is in a tight loop around a system call to \code{sigwaitinfo}, requiring very little CPU time for preemption. One final detail about the alarm thread is how to wake it when additional communication is required (e.g., on thread termination). This unblocking is also done using {\tt SIGALRM}, but sent through the \code{pthread_sigqueue}. Indeed, \code{sigwait} can differentiate signals sent from \code{pthread_sigqueue} from signals sent from alarms or the kernel.
+Now because of how involuntary context-switches are handled, the kernel thread handling {\tt SIGALRM} cannot also be a processor thread.
+Hence, involuntary context-switching is done by sending signal {\tt SIGUSR1} to the corresponding proces\-sor and having the thread yield from inside the signal handler.
+This approach effectively context-switches away from the signal handler back to the kernel and the signal handler frame is eventually unwound when the thread is scheduled again.
+As a result, a signal handler can start on one kernel thread and terminate on a second kernel thread (but the same user thread).
+It is important to note that signal handlers save and restore signal masks because user-thread migration can cause a signal mask to migrate from one kernel thread to another.
+This behaviour is only a problem if all kernel threads, among which a user thread can migrate, differ in terms of signal masks\footnote{Sadly, official POSIX documentation is silent on what distinguishes ``async-signal-safe'' functions from other functions.}.
+However, since the kernel thread handling preemption requires a different signal mask, executing user threads on the kernel-alarm thread can cause deadlocks.
+For this reason, the alarm thread is in a tight loop around a system call to @sigwaitinfo@, requiring very little CPU time for preemption.
+One final detail about the alarm thread is how to wake it when additional communication is required (\eg on thread termination).
+This unblocking is also done using {\tt SIGALRM}, but sent through the @pthread_sigqueue@.
+Indeed, @sigwait@ can differentiate signals sent from @pthread_sigqueue@ from signals sent from alarms or the kernel.
 \subsection{Scheduler}
+Finally, an aspect that was not mentioned yet is the scheduling algorithm. Currently, the \CFA scheduler uses a single ready queue for all processors, which is the simplest approach to scheduling. Further discussion on scheduling is present in section \ref{futur:sched}.
+Finally, an aspect that was not mentioned yet is the scheduling algorithm.
+Currently, the \CFA scheduler uses a single ready queue for all processors, which is the simplest approach to scheduling.
+Further discussion on scheduling is present in section \ref{futur:sched}.
 % ======================================================================
 …
 The following figure is the traditional illustration of a monitor (repeated from page~\pageref{fig:ClassicalMonitor} for convenience):
 \begin{figure}[H]
+\begin{figure}
 \begin{center}
 {\resizebox{0.4\textwidth}{!}{\input{monitor}}}
 …
 \end{figure}
+This picture has several components, the two most important being the entry queue and the AS-stack. The entry queue is an (almost) FIFO list where threads waiting to enter are parked, while the acceptor/signaller (AS) stack is a FILO list used for threads that have been signalled or otherwise marked as running next.
+For \CFA, this picture does not have support for blocking multiple monitors on a single condition. To support \textbf{bulk-acq} two changes to this picture are required. First, it is no longer helpful to attach the condition to \emph{a single} monitor. Secondly, the thread waiting on the condition has to be separated across multiple monitors, seen in figure \ref{fig:monitor_cfa}.
+\begin{figure}[H]
+This picture has several components, the two most important being the entry queue and the AS-stack.
+The entry queue is an (almost) FIFO list where threads waiting to enter are parked, while the acceptor/signaller (AS) stack is a FILO list used for threads that have been signalled or otherwise marked as running next.
+For \CFA, this picture does not have support for blocking multiple monitors on a single condition.
+To support \textbf{bulk-acq} two changes to this picture are required.
+First, it is no longer helpful to attach the condition to \emph{a single} monitor.
+Secondly, the thread waiting on the condition has to be separated across multiple monitors, seen in figure \ref{fig:monitor_cfa}.
+\begin{figure}
 \begin{center}
 {\resizebox{0.8\textwidth}{!}{\input{int_monitor}}}
 …
 \end{figure}
+This picture and the proper entry and leave algorithms (see listing \ref{lst:entry2}) is the fundamental implementation of internal scheduling. Note that when a thread is moved from the condition to the AS-stack, it is conceptually split into N pieces, where N is the number of monitors specified in the parameter list. The thread is woken up when all the pieces have popped from the AS-stacks and made active. In this picture, the threads are split into halves but this is only because there are two monitors. For a specific signalling operation every monitor needs a piece of thread on its AS-stack.
+\begin{figure}[b]
+This picture and the proper entry and leave algorithms (see listing \ref{f:entry2}) is the fundamental implementation of internal scheduling.
+Note that when a thread is moved from the condition to the AS-stack, it is conceptually split into N pieces, where N is the number of monitors specified in the parameter list.
+The thread is woken up when all the pieces have popped from the AS-stacks and made active.
+In this picture, the threads are split into halves but this is only because there are two monitors.
+For a specific signalling operation every monitor needs a piece of thread on its AS-stack.
+\begin{figure}
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 Entry
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 if monitor is free
         enter
 …
 increment recursion
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 Exit
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 decrement recursion
 if recursion == 0
 …
         if entry queue not empty
                 wake-up thread
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
 \begin{pseudo}[caption={Entry and exit routine for monitors with internal scheduling},label={lst:entry2}]
 \end{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Entry and exit routine for monitors with internal scheduling},label={f:entry2}]
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
+The solution discussed in \ref{intsched} can be seen in the exit routine of listing \ref{lst:entry2}. Basically, the solution boils down to having a separate data structure for the condition queue and the AS-stack, and unconditionally transferring ownership of the monitors but only unblocking the thread when the last monitor has transferred ownership. This solution is deadlock safe as well as preventing any potential barging. The data structures used for the AS-stack are reused extensively for external scheduling, but in the case of internal scheduling, the data is allocated using variable-length arrays on the call stack of the \code{wait} and \code{signal_block} routines.
+\begin{figure}[H]
+The solution discussed in \ref{intsched} can be seen in the exit routine of listing \ref{f:entry2}.
+Basically, the solution boils down to having a separate data structure for the condition queue and the AS-stack, and unconditionally transferring ownership of the monitors but only unblocking the thread when the last monitor has transferred ownership.
+This solution is deadlock safe as well as preventing any potential barging.
+The data structures used for the AS-stack are reused extensively for external scheduling, but in the case of internal scheduling, the data is allocated using variable-length arrays on the call stack of the @wait@ and @signal_block@ routines.
+\begin{figure}
 \begin{center}
 {\resizebox{0.8\textwidth}{!}{\input{monitor_structs.pstex_t}}}
 …
 \end{figure}
+Figure \ref{fig:structs} shows a high-level representation of these data structures. The main idea behind them is that, a thread cannot contain an arbitrary number of intrusive ``next'' pointers for linking onto monitors. The \code{condition node} is the data structure that is queued onto a condition variable and, when signalled, the condition queue is popped and each \code{condition criterion} is moved to the AS-stack. Once all the criteria have been popped from their respective AS-stacks, the thread is woken up, which is what is shown in listing \ref{lst:entry2}.
+Figure \ref{fig:structs} shows a high-level representation of these data structures.
+The main idea behind them is that, a thread cannot contain an arbitrary number of intrusive ``next'' pointers for linking onto monitors.
+The @condition node@ is the data structure that is queued onto a condition variable and, when signalled, the condition queue is popped and each @condition criterion@ is moved to the AS-stack.
+Once all the criteria have been popped from their respective AS-stacks, the thread is woken up, which is what is shown in listing \ref{f:entry2}.
 % ======================================================================
 …
 % ======================================================================
 % ======================================================================
+Similarly to internal scheduling, external scheduling for multiple monitors relies on the idea that waiting-thread queues are no longer specific to a single monitor, as mentioned in section \ref{extsched}. For internal scheduling, these queues are part of condition variables, which are still unique for a given scheduling operation (i.e., no signal statement uses multiple conditions). However, in the case of external scheduling, there is no equivalent object which is associated with \code{waitfor} statements. This absence means the queues holding the waiting threads must be stored inside at least one of the monitors that is acquired. These monitors being the only objects that have sufficient lifetime and are available on both sides of the \code{waitfor} statement. This requires an algorithm to choose which monitor holds the relevant queue. It is also important that said algorithm be independent of the order in which users list parameters. The proposed algorithm is to fall back on monitor lock ordering (sorting by address) and specify that the monitor that is acquired first is the one with the relevant waiting queue. This assumes that the lock acquiring order is static for the lifetime of all concerned objects but that is a reasonable constraint.
+Similarly to internal scheduling, external scheduling for multiple monitors relies on the idea that waiting-thread queues are no longer specific to a single monitor, as mentioned in section \ref{extsched}.
+For internal scheduling, these queues are part of condition variables, which are still unique for a given scheduling operation (\ie no signal statement uses multiple conditions).
+However, in the case of external scheduling, there is no equivalent object which is associated with @waitfor@ statements.
+This absence means the queues holding the waiting threads must be stored inside at least one of the monitors that is acquired.
+These monitors being the only objects that have sufficient lifetime and are available on both sides of the @waitfor@ statement.
+This requires an algorithm to choose which monitor holds the relevant queue.
+It is also important that said algorithm be independent of the order in which users list parameters.
+The proposed algorithm is to fall back on monitor lock ordering (sorting by address) and specify that the monitor that is acquired first is the one with the relevant waiting queue.
+This assumes that the lock acquiring order is static for the lifetime of all concerned objects but that is a reasonable constraint.
 This algorithm choice has two consequences:
 \begin{itemize}
+        \item The queue of the monitor with the lowest address is no longer a true FIFO queue because threads can be moved to the front of the queue. These queues need to contain a set of monitors for each of the waiting threads. Therefore, another thread whose set contains the same lowest address monitor but different lower priority monitors may arrive first but enter the critical section after a thread with the correct pairing.
+        \item The queue of the lowest priority monitor is both required and potentially unused. Indeed, since it is not known at compile time which monitor is the monitor which has the lowest address, every monitor needs to have the correct queues even though it is possible that some queues go unused for the entire duration of the program, for example if a monitor is only used in a specific pair.
+        \item The queue of the monitor with the lowest address is no longer a true FIFO queue because threads can be moved to the front of the queue.
+These queues need to contain a set of monitors for each of the waiting threads.
+Therefore, another thread whose set contains the same lowest address monitor but different lower priority monitors may arrive first but enter the critical section after a thread with the correct pairing.
+        \item The queue of the lowest priority monitor is both required and potentially unused.
+Indeed, since it is not known at compile time which monitor is the monitor which has the lowest address, every monitor needs to have the correct queues even though it is possible that some queues go unused for the entire duration of the program, for example if a monitor is only used in a specific pair.
 \end{itemize}
 Therefore, the following modifications need to be made to support external scheduling:
 \begin{itemize}
+        \item The threads waiting on the entry queue need to keep track of which routine they are trying to enter, and using which set of monitors. The \code{mutex} routine already has all the required information on its stack, so the thread only needs to keep a pointer to that information.
+        \item The monitors need to keep a mask of acceptable routines. This mask contains for each acceptable routine, a routine pointer and an array of monitors to go with it. It also needs storage to keep track of which routine was accepted. Since this information is not specific to any monitor, the monitors actually contain a pointer to an integer on the stack of the waiting thread. Note that if a thread has acquired two monitors but executes a \code{waitfor} with only one monitor as a parameter, setting the mask of acceptable routines to both monitors will not cause any problems since the extra monitor will not change ownership regardless. This becomes relevant when \code{when} clauses affect the number of monitors passed to a \code{waitfor} statement.
+        \item The entry/exit routines need to be updated as shown in listing \ref{lst:entry3}.
+        \item The threads waiting on the entry queue need to keep track of which routine they are trying to enter, and using which set of monitors.
+The @mutex@ routine already has all the required information on its stack, so the thread only needs to keep a pointer to that information.
+        \item The monitors need to keep a mask of acceptable routines.
+This mask contains for each acceptable routine, a routine pointer and an array of monitors to go with it.
+It also needs storage to keep track of which routine was accepted.
+Since this information is not specific to any monitor, the monitors actually contain a pointer to an integer on the stack of the waiting thread.
+Note that if a thread has acquired two monitors but executes a @waitfor@ with only one monitor as a parameter, setting the mask of acceptable routines to both monitors will not cause any problems since the extra monitor will not change ownership regardless.
+This becomes relevant when @when@ clauses affect the number of monitors passed to a @waitfor@ statement.
+        \item The entry/exit routines need to be updated as shown in listing \ref{f:entry3}.
 \end{itemize}
 \subsection{External Scheduling - Destructors}
+Finally, to support the ordering inversion of destructors, the code generation needs to be modified to use a special entry routine. This routine is needed because of the storage requirements of the call order inversion. Indeed, when waiting for the destructors, storage is needed for the waiting context and the lifetime of said storage needs to outlive the waiting operation it is needed for. For regular \code{waitfor} statements, the call stack of the routine itself matches this requirement but it is no longer the case when waiting for the destructor since it is pushed on to the AS-stack for later. The \code{waitfor} semantics can then be adjusted correspondingly, as seen in listing \ref{lst:entry-dtor}
+Finally, to support the ordering inversion of destructors, the code generation needs to be modified to use a special entry routine.
+This routine is needed because of the storage requirements of the call order inversion.
+Indeed, when waiting for the destructors, storage is needed for the waiting context and the lifetime of said storage needs to outlive the waiting operation it is needed for.
+For regular @waitfor@ statements, the call stack of the routine itself matches this requirement but it is no longer the case when waiting for the destructor since it is pushed on to the AS-stack for later.
+The @waitfor@ semantics can then be adjusted correspondingly, as seen in listing \ref{f:entry-dtor}
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 Entry
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 if monitor is free
         enter
 …
         block
 increment recursion
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 Exit
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 decrement recursion
 if recursion == 0
 …
                 wake-up thread
         endif
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
 \begin{pseudo}[caption={Entry and exit routine for monitors with internal scheduling and external scheduling},label={lst:entry3}]
 \end{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Entry and exit routine for monitors with internal scheduling and external scheduling},label={f:entry3}]
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
 …
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 Destructor Entry
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 if monitor is free
         enter
 …
         wait
 increment recursion
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 Waitfor
 \begin{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}
 if matching thread is already there
         if found destructor
 …
 block
 return
 \end{pseudo}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
 \begin{pseudo}[caption={Pseudo code for the \code{waitfor} routine and the \code{mutex} entry routine for destructors},label={lst:entry-dtor}]
 \end{pseudo}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Pseudo code for the \protect\lstinline|waitfor| routine and the \protect\lstinline|mutex| entry routine for destructors},label={f:entry-dtor}]
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
 …
 \section{Threads As Monitors}
+As it was subtly alluded in section \ref{threads}, \code{thread}s in \CFA are in fact monitors, which means that all monitor features are available when using threads. For example, here is a very simple two thread pipeline that could be used for a simulator of a game engine:
+\begin{figure}[H]
+\begin{cfacode}[caption={Toy simulator using \code{thread}s and \code{monitor}s.},label={lst:engine-v1}]
+As it was subtly alluded in section \ref{threads}, @thread@s in \CFA are in fact monitors, which means that all monitor features are available when using threads.
+For example, here is a very simple two thread pipeline that could be used for a simulator of a game engine:
+\begin{figure}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Toy simulator using \protect\lstinline|thread|s and \protect\lstinline|monitor|s.},label={f:engine-v1}]
 // Visualization declaration
 thread Renderer {} renderer;
 …
+        }
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
+One of the obvious complaints of the previous code snippet (other than its toy-like simplicity) is that it does not handle exit conditions and just goes on forever. Luckily, the monitor semantics can also be used to clearly enforce a shutdown order in a concise manner:
+\begin{figure}[H]
+\begin{cfacode}[caption={Same toy simulator with proper termination condition.},label={lst:engine-v2}]
+One of the obvious complaints of the previous code snippet (other than its toy-like simplicity) is that it does not handle exit conditions and just goes on forever.
+Luckily, the monitor semantics can also be used to clearly enforce a shutdown order in a concise manner:
+\begin{figure}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Same toy simulator with proper termination condition.},label={f:engine-v2}]
 // Visualization declaration
 thread Renderer {} renderer;
 …
 // Call destructor for simulator once simulator finishes
 // Call destructor for renderer to signify shutdown
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
 \section{Fibers \& Threads}
+As mentioned in section \ref{preemption}, \CFA uses preemptive threads by default but can use fibers on demand. Currently, using fibers is done by adding the following line of code to the program~:
+\begin{cfacode}
+As mentioned in section \ref{preemption}, \CFA uses preemptive threads by default but can use fibers on demand.
+Currently, using fibers is done by adding the following line of code to the program~:
+\begin{cfa}
 unsigned int default_preemption() {
         return 0;
+}
+\end{cfacode}
+This function is called by the kernel to fetch the default preemption rate, where 0 signifies an infinite time-slice, i.e., no preemption. However, once clusters are fully implemented, it will be possible to create fibers and \textbf{uthread} in the same system, as in listing \ref{lst:fiber-uthread}
+\end{cfa}
+This function is called by the kernel to fetch the default preemption rate, where 0 signifies an infinite time-slice, \ie no preemption.
+However, once clusters are fully implemented, it will be possible to create fibers and \textbf{uthread} in the same system, as in listing \ref{f:fiber-uthread}
 \begin{figure}
+\begin{cfacode}[caption={Using fibers and \textbf{uthread} side-by-side in \CFA},label={lst:fiber-uthread}]
+//Cluster forward declaration
+\lstset{language=CFA,deletedelim=**[is][]{`}{`}}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Using fibers and \textbf{uthread} side-by-side in \CFA},label={f:fiber-uthread}]
+// Cluster forward declaration
 struct cluster;
 //Processor forward declaration
+// Processor forward declaration
 struct processor;
 //Construct clusters with a preemption rate
+// Construct clusters with a preemption rate
 void ?{}(cluster& this, unsigned int rate);
 //Construct processor and add it to cluster
+// Construct processor and add it to cluster
 void ?{}(processor& this, cluster& cluster);
 //Construct thread and schedule it on cluster
+// Construct thread and schedule it on cluster
 void ?{}(thread& this, cluster& cluster);
 //Declare two clusters
 cluster thread_cluster = { 10`ms };                     //Preempt every 10 ms
 cluster fibers_cluster = { 0 };                         //Never preempt
 //Construct 4 processors
+// Declare two clusters
+cluster thread_cluster = { 10`ms };                     // Preempt every 10 ms
+cluster fibers_cluster = { 0 };                         // Never preempt
+// Construct 4 processors
 processor processors[4] = {
         //2 for the thread cluster
 …
 };
 //Declares thread
+// Declares thread
 thread UThread {};
 void ?{}(UThread& this) {
         //Construct underlying thread to automatically
         //be scheduled on the thread cluster
+        // Construct underlying thread to automatically
+        // be scheduled on the thread cluster
         (this){ thread_cluster }
+}
 …
 void main(UThread & this);
 //Declares fibers
+// Declares fibers
 thread Fiber {};
 void ?{}(Fiber& this) {
         //Construct underlying thread to automatically
         //be scheduled on the fiber cluster
+        // Construct underlying thread to automatically
+        // be scheduled on the fiber cluster
         (this.__thread){ fibers_cluster }
+}
 void main(Fiber & this);
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
 …
 % ======================================================================
 \section{Machine Setup}
+Table \ref{tab:machine} shows the characteristics of the machine used to run the benchmarks. All tests were made on this machine.
+\begin{table}[H]
+Table \ref{tab:machine} shows the characteristics of the machine used to run the benchmarks.
+All tests were made on this machine.
+\begin{table}
 \begin{center}
 \begin{tabular}{| l | r | l | r |}
 …
 \section{Micro Benchmarks}
+All benchmarks are run using the same harness to produce the results, seen as the \code{BENCH()} macro in the following examples. This macro uses the following logic to benchmark the code:
+\begin{pseudo}
+All benchmarks are run using the same harness to produce the results, seen as the @BENCH()@ macro in the following examples.
+This macro uses the following logic to benchmark the code:
+\begin{cfa}
 #define BENCH(run, result) \
         before = gettime(); \
 …
         after  = gettime(); \
         result = (after - before) / N;
+\end{pseudo}
+The method used to get time is \code{clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID);}. Each benchmark is using many iterations of a simple call to measure the cost of the call. The specific number of iterations depends on the specific benchmark.
+\end{cfa}
+The method used to get time is @clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID);@.
+Each benchmark is using many iterations of a simple call to measure the cost of the call.
+The specific number of iterations depends on the specific benchmark.
 \subsection{Context-Switching}
+The first interesting benchmark is to measure how long context-switches take. The simplest approach to do this is to yield on a thread, which executes a 2-step context switch. Yielding causes the thread to context-switch to the scheduler and back, more precisely: from the \textbf{uthread} to the \textbf{kthread} then from the \textbf{kthread} back to the same \textbf{uthread} (or a different one in the general case). In order to make the comparison fair, coroutines also execute a 2-step context-switch by resuming another coroutine which does nothing but suspending in a tight loop, which is a resume/suspend cycle instead of a yield. Listing \ref{lst:ctx-switch} shows the code for coroutines and threads with the results in table \ref{tab:ctx-switch}. All omitted tests are functionally identical to one of these tests. The difference between coroutines and threads can be attributed to the cost of scheduling.
+The first interesting benchmark is to measure how long context-switches take.
+The simplest approach to do this is to yield on a thread, which executes a 2-step context switch.
+Yielding causes the thread to context-switch to the scheduler and back, more precisely: from the \textbf{uthread} to the \textbf{kthread} then from the \textbf{kthread} back to the same \textbf{uthread} (or a different one in the general case).
+In order to make the comparison fair, coroutines also execute a 2-step context-switch by resuming another coroutine which does nothing but suspending in a tight loop, which is a resume/suspend cycle instead of a yield.
+Figure~\ref{f:ctx-switch} shows the code for coroutines and threads with the results in table \ref{tab:ctx-switch}.
+All omitted tests are functionally identical to one of these tests.
+The difference between coroutines and threads can be attributed to the cost of scheduling.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{multicols}{2}
 \CFA Coroutines
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 coroutine GreatSuspender {};
 void main(GreatSuspender& this) {
 …
         printf("%llu\n", result);
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \columnbreak
 \CFA Threads
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 …
         printf("%llu\n", result);
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{multicols}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={\CFA benchmark code used to measure context-switches for coroutines and threads.},label={lst:ctx-switch}]
 \end{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}[caption={\CFA benchmark code used to measure context-switches for coroutines and threads.},label={f:ctx-switch}]
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
 …
 \end{tabular}
 \end{center}
+\caption{Context Switch comparison. All numbers are in nanoseconds(\si{\nano\second})}
+\caption{Context Switch comparison.
+All numbers are in nanoseconds(\si{\nano\second})}
 \label{tab:ctx-switch}
 \end{table}
 \subsection{Mutual-Exclusion}
+The next interesting benchmark is to measure the overhead to enter/leave a critical-section. For monitors, the simplest approach is to measure how long it takes to enter and leave a monitor routine. Listing \ref{lst:mutex} shows the code for \CFA. To put the results in context, the cost of entering a non-inline function and the cost of acquiring and releasing a \code{pthread_mutex} lock is also measured. The results can be shown in table \ref{tab:mutex}.
+The next interesting benchmark is to measure the overhead to enter/leave a critical-section.
+For monitors, the simplest approach is to measure how long it takes to enter and leave a monitor routine.
+Figure~\ref{f:mutex} shows the code for \CFA.
+To put the results in context, the cost of entering a non-inline function and the cost of acquiring and releasing a @pthread_mutex@ lock is also measured.
+The results can be shown in table \ref{tab:mutex}.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={\CFA benchmark code used to measure mutex routines.},label={lst:mutex}]
+\begin{cfa}[caption={\CFA benchmark code used to measure mutex routines.},label={f:mutex}]
 monitor M {};
 void __attribute__((noinline)) call( M & mutex m /*, m2, m3, m4*/ ) {}
 …
         printf("%llu\n", result);
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
 …
 FetchAdd + FetchSub                             & 26            & 26            & 0    \\
 Pthreads Mutex Lock                             & 31            & 31.86 & 0.99 \\
 \uC \code{monitor} member routine               & 30            & 30            & 0    \\
 \CFA \code{mutex} routine, 1 argument   & 41            & 41.57 & 0.9  \\
 \CFA \code{mutex} routine, 2 argument   & 76            & 76.96 & 1.57 \\
 \CFA \code{mutex} routine, 4 argument   & 145           & 146.68        & 3.85 \\
+\uC @monitor@ member routine            & 30            & 30            & 0    \\
+\CFA @mutex@ routine, 1 argument        & 41            & 41.57 & 0.9  \\
+\CFA @mutex@ routine, 2 argument        & 76            & 76.96 & 1.57 \\
+\CFA @mutex@ routine, 4 argument        & 145           & 146.68        & 3.85 \\
 Java synchronized routine                       & 27            & 28.57 & 2.6  \\
 \hline
 \end{tabular}
 \end{center}
+\caption{Mutex routine comparison. All numbers are in nanoseconds(\si{\nano\second})}
+\caption{Mutex routine comparison.
+All numbers are in nanoseconds(\si{\nano\second})}
 \label{tab:mutex}
 \end{table}
 \subsection{Internal Scheduling}
+The internal-scheduling benchmark measures the cost of waiting on and signalling a condition variable. Listing \ref{lst:int-sched} shows the code for \CFA, with results table \ref{tab:int-sched}. As with all other benchmarks, all omitted tests are functionally identical to one of these tests.
+The internal-scheduling benchmark measures the cost of waiting on and signalling a condition variable.
+Figure~\ref{f:int-sched} shows the code for \CFA, with results table \ref{tab:int-sched}.
+As with all other benchmarks, all omitted tests are functionally identical to one of these tests.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Benchmark code for internal scheduling},label={lst:int-sched}]
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Benchmark code for internal scheduling},label={f:int-sched}]
 volatile int go = 0;
 condition c;
 …
         return do_wait(m1);
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
 …
 \hline
 Pthreads Condition Variable                     & 5902.5        & 6093.29       & 714.78 \\
 \uC \code{signal}                                       & 322           & 323   & 3.36   \\
 \CFA \code{signal}, 1 \code{monitor}    & 352.5 & 353.11        & 3.66   \\
 \CFA \code{signal}, 2 \code{monitor}    & 430           & 430.29        & 8.97   \\
 \CFA \code{signal}, 4 \code{monitor}    & 594.5 & 606.57        & 18.33  \\
 Java \code{notify}                              & 13831.5       & 15698.21      & 4782.3 \\
+\uC @signal@                                    & 322           & 323   & 3.36   \\
+\CFA @signal@, 1 @monitor@      & 352.5 & 353.11        & 3.66   \\
+\CFA @signal@, 2 @monitor@      & 430           & 430.29        & 8.97   \\
+\CFA @signal@, 4 @monitor@      & 594.5 & 606.57        & 18.33  \\
+Java @notify@                           & 13831.5       & 15698.21      & 4782.3 \\
 \hline
 \end{tabular}
 \end{center}
+\caption{Internal scheduling comparison. All numbers are in nanoseconds(\si{\nano\second})}
+\caption{Internal scheduling comparison.
+All numbers are in nanoseconds(\si{\nano\second})}
 \label{tab:int-sched}
 \end{table}
 \subsection{External Scheduling}
+The Internal scheduling benchmark measures the cost of the \code{waitfor} statement (\code{_Accept} in \uC). Listing \ref{lst:ext-sched} shows the code for \CFA, with results in table \ref{tab:ext-sched}. As with all other benchmarks, all omitted tests are functionally identical to one of these tests.
+The Internal scheduling benchmark measures the cost of the @waitfor@ statement (@_Accept@ in \uC).
+Figure~\ref{f:ext-sched} shows the code for \CFA, with results in table \ref{tab:ext-sched}.
+As with all other benchmarks, all omitted tests are functionally identical to one of these tests.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Benchmark code for external scheduling},label={lst:ext-sched}]
+\begin{cfa}[caption={Benchmark code for external scheduling},label={f:ext-sched}]
 volatile int go = 0;
 monitor M {};
 …
         return do_wait(m1);
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{figure}
 …
 \multicolumn{1}{c |}{} & \multicolumn{1}{c |}{ Median } &\multicolumn{1}{c |}{ Average } & \multicolumn{1}{c |}{ Standard Deviation} \\
 \hline
 \uC \code{Accept}                                       & 350           & 350.61        & 3.11  \\
 \CFA \code{waitfor}, 1 \code{monitor}   & 358.5 & 358.36        & 3.82  \\
 \CFA \code{waitfor}, 2 \code{monitor}   & 422           & 426.79        & 7.95  \\
 \CFA \code{waitfor}, 4 \code{monitor}   & 579.5 & 585.46        & 11.25 \\
+\uC @Accept@                                    & 350           & 350.61        & 3.11  \\
+\CFA @waitfor@, 1 @monitor@     & 358.5 & 358.36        & 3.82  \\
+\CFA @waitfor@, 2 @monitor@     & 422           & 426.79        & 7.95  \\
+\CFA @waitfor@, 4 @monitor@     & 579.5 & 585.46        & 11.25 \\
 \hline
 \end{tabular}
 \end{center}
+\caption{External scheduling comparison. All numbers are in nanoseconds(\si{\nano\second})}
+\caption{External scheduling comparison.
+All numbers are in nanoseconds(\si{\nano\second})}
 \label{tab:ext-sched}
 \end{table}
 \subsection{Object Creation}
+Finally, the last benchmark measures the cost of creation for concurrent objects. Listing \ref{lst:creation} shows the code for \texttt{pthread}s and \CFA threads, with results shown in table \ref{tab:creation}. As with all other benchmarks, all omitted tests are functionally identical to one of these tests. The only note here is that the call stacks of \CFA coroutines are lazily created, therefore without priming the coroutine, the creation cost is very low.
+Finally, the last benchmark measures the cost of creation for concurrent objects.
+Figure~\ref{f:creation} shows the code for @pthread@s and \CFA threads, with results shown in table \ref{tab:creation}.
+As with all other benchmarks, all omitted tests are functionally identical to one of these tests.
+The only note here is that the call stacks of \CFA coroutines are lazily created, therefore without priming the coroutine, the creation cost is very low.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{center}
+\texttt{pthread}
 \begin{ccode}
+@pthread@
+\begin{cfa}
 int main() {
         BENCH(
 …
         printf("%llu\n", result);
+}
 \end{ccode}
+\end{cfa}
 \CFA Threads
 \begin{cfacode}
+\begin{cfa}
 int main() {
         BENCH(
 …
         printf("%llu\n", result);
+}
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{center}
 \begin{cfacode}[caption={Benchmark code for \texttt{pthread}s and \CFA to measure object creation},label={lst:creation}]
 \end{cfacode}
+\caption{Benchmark code for \protect\lstinline|pthread|s and \CFA to measure object creation}
+\label{f:creation}
 \end{figure}
 …
 \end{tabular}
 \end{center}
+\caption{Creation comparison. All numbers are in nanoseconds(\si{\nano\second}).}
+\caption{Creation comparison.
+All numbers are in nanoseconds(\si{\nano\second}).}
 \label{tab:creation}
 \end{table}
 …
 \section{Conclusion}
+This paper has achieved a minimal concurrency \textbf{api} that is simple, efficient and usable as the basis for higher-level features. The approach presented is based on a lightweight thread-system for parallelism, which sits on top of clusters of processors. This M:N model is judged to be both more efficient and allow more flexibility for users. Furthermore, this document introduces monitors as the main concurrency tool for users. This paper also offers a novel approach allowing multiple monitors to be accessed simultaneously without running into the Nested Monitor Problem~\cite{Lister77}. It also offers a full implementation of the concurrency runtime written entirely in \CFA, effectively the largest \CFA code base to date.
+This paper has achieved a minimal concurrency \textbf{api} that is simple, efficient and usable as the basis for higher-level features.
+The approach presented is based on a lightweight thread-system for parallelism, which sits on top of clusters of processors.
+This M:N model is judged to be both more efficient and allow more flexibility for users.
+Furthermore, this document introduces monitors as the main concurrency tool for users.
+This paper also offers a novel approach allowing multiple monitors to be accessed simultaneously without running into the Nested Monitor Problem~\cite{Lister77}.
+It also offers a full implementation of the concurrency runtime written entirely in \CFA, effectively the largest \CFA code base to date.
 …
 \subsection{Performance} \label{futur:perf}
+This paper presents a first implementation of the \CFA concurrency runtime. Therefore, there is still significant work to improve performance. Many of the data structures and algorithms may change in the future to more efficient versions. For example, the number of monitors in a single \textbf{bulk-acq} is only bound by the stack size, this is probably unnecessarily generous. It may be possible that limiting the number helps increase performance. However, it is not obvious that the benefit would be significant.
+This paper presents a first implementation of the \CFA concurrency runtime.
+Therefore, there is still significant work to improve performance.
+Many of the data structures and algorithms may change in the future to more efficient versions.
+For example, the number of monitors in a single \textbf{bulk-acq} is only bound by the stack size, this is probably unnecessarily generous.
+It may be possible that limiting the number helps increase performance.
+However, it is not obvious that the benefit would be significant.
 \subsection{Flexible Scheduling} \label{futur:sched}
+An important part of concurrency is scheduling. Different scheduling algorithms can affect performance (both in terms of average and variation). However, no single scheduler is optimal for all workloads and therefore there is value in being able to change the scheduler for given programs. One solution is to offer various tweaking options to users, allowing the scheduler to be adjusted to the requirements of the workload. However, in order to be truly flexible, it would be interesting to allow users to add arbitrary data and arbitrary scheduling algorithms. For example, a web server could attach Type-of-Service information to threads and have a ``ToS aware'' scheduling algorithm tailored to this specific web server. This path of flexible schedulers will be explored for \CFA.
+An important part of concurrency is scheduling.
+Different scheduling algorithms can affect performance (both in terms of average and variation).
+However, no single scheduler is optimal for all workloads and therefore there is value in being able to change the scheduler for given programs.
+One solution is to offer various tweaking options to users, allowing the scheduler to be adjusted to the requirements of the workload.
+However, in order to be truly flexible, it would be interesting to allow users to add arbitrary data and arbitrary scheduling algorithms.
+For example, a web server could attach Type-of-Service information to threads and have a ``ToS aware'' scheduling algorithm tailored to this specific web server.
+This path of flexible schedulers will be explored for \CFA.
 \subsection{Non-Blocking I/O} \label{futur:nbio}
+While most of the parallelism tools are aimed at data parallelism and control-flow parallelism, many modern workloads are not bound on computation but on IO operations, a common case being web servers and XaaS (anything as a service). These types of workloads often require significant engineering around amortizing costs of blocking IO operations. At its core, non-blocking I/O is an operating system level feature that allows queuing IO operations (e.g., network operations) and registering for notifications instead of waiting for requests to complete. In this context, the role of the language makes Non-Blocking IO easily available and with low overhead. The current trend is to use asynchronous programming using tools like callbacks and/or futures and promises, which can be seen in frameworks like Node.js~\cite{NodeJs} for JavaScript, Spring MVC~\cite{SpringMVC} for Java and Django~\cite{Django} for Python. However, while these are valid solutions, they lead to code that is harder to read and maintain because it is much less linear.
+While most of the parallelism tools are aimed at data parallelism and control-flow parallelism, many modern workloads are not bound on computation but on IO operations, a common case being web servers and XaaS (anything as a service).
+These types of workloads often require significant engineering around amortizing costs of blocking IO operations.
+At its core, non-blocking I/O is an operating system level feature that allows queuing IO operations (\eg network operations) and registering for notifications instead of waiting for requests to complete.
+In this context, the role of the language makes Non-Blocking IO easily available and with low overhead.
+The current trend is to use asynchronous programming using tools like callbacks and/or futures and promises, which can be seen in frameworks like Node.js~\cite{NodeJs} for JavaScript, Spring MVC~\cite{SpringMVC} for Java and Django~\cite{Django} for Python.
+However, while these are valid solutions, they lead to code that is harder to read and maintain because it is much less linear.
 \subsection{Other Concurrency Tools} \label{futur:tools}
+While monitors offer a flexible and powerful concurrent core for \CFA, other concurrency tools are also necessary for a complete multi-paradigm concurrency package. Examples of such tools can include simple locks and condition variables, futures and promises~\cite{promises}, executors and actors. These additional features are useful when monitors offer a level of abstraction that is inadequate for certain tasks.
+While monitors offer a flexible and powerful concurrent core for \CFA, other concurrency tools are also necessary for a complete multi-paradigm concurrency package.
+Examples of such tools can include simple locks and condition variables, futures and promises~\cite{promises}, executors and actors.
+These additional features are useful when monitors offer a level of abstraction that is inadequate for certain tasks.
 \subsection{Implicit Threading} \label{futur:implcit}
+Simpler applications can benefit greatly from having implicit parallelism. That is, parallelism that does not rely on the user to write concurrency. This type of parallelism can be achieved both at the language level and at the library level. The canonical example of implicit parallelism is parallel for loops, which are the simplest example of a divide and conquer algorithms~\cite{uC++book}. Table \ref{lst:parfor} shows three different code examples that accomplish point-wise sums of large arrays. Note that none of these examples explicitly declare any concurrency or parallelism objects.
+Simpler applications can benefit greatly from having implicit parallelism.
+That is, parallelism that does not rely on the user to write concurrency.
+This type of parallelism can be achieved both at the language level and at the library level.
+The canonical example of implicit parallelism is parallel for loops, which are the simplest example of a divide and conquer algorithms~\cite{uC++book}.
+Table \ref{f:parfor} shows three different code examples that accomplish point-wise sums of large arrays.
+Note that none of these examples explicitly declare any concurrency or parallelism objects.
 \begin{table}
 …
 \begin{tabular}[t]{|c|c|c|}
 Sequential & Library Parallel & Language Parallel \\
 \begin{cfacode}[tabsize=3]
+\begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
 void big_sum(
         int* a, int* b,
 …
 //... fill in a & b
 big_sum(a,b,c,10000);
 \end{cfacode} &\begin{cfacode}[tabsize=3]
+\end{cfa} &\begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
 void big_sum(
         int* a, int* b,
 …
 //... fill in a & b
 big_sum(a,b,c,10000);
 \end{cfacode}&\begin{cfacode}[tabsize=3]
+\end{cfa}&\begin{cfa}[tabsize=3]
 void big_sum(
         int* a, int* b,
 …
 //... fill in a & b
 big_sum(a,b,c,10000);
 \end{cfacode}
+\end{cfa}
 \end{tabular}
 \end{center}
 \caption{For loop to sum numbers: Sequential, using library parallelism and language parallelism.}
 \label{lst:parfor}
+\label{f:parfor}
 \end{table}
+Implicit parallelism is a restrictive solution and therefore has its limitations. However, it is a quick and simple approach to parallelism, which may very well be sufficient for smaller applications and reduces the amount of boilerplate needed to start benefiting from parallelism in modern CPUs.
+Implicit parallelism is a restrictive solution and therefore has its limitations.
+However, it is a quick and simple approach to parallelism, which may very well be sufficient for smaller applications and reduces the amount of boilerplate needed to start benefiting from parallelism in modern CPUs.
 …
 % B I B L I O G R A P H Y
 % -----------------------------
 \bibliographystyle{plain}
+%\bibliographystyle{plain}
 \bibliography{pl,local}

doc/papers/concurrency/annex/local.bib

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 @string{pldi="Programming Language Design and Implementation"}
+@article{HPP:Study,
+        keywords        = {Parallel, Productivity},
+        author  = {Lorin Hochstein and Jeff Carver and Forrest Shull and Sima Asgari and Victor Basili and Jeffrey K. Hollingsworth and Marvin V. Zelkowitz },
+        title   = {Parallel Programmer Productivity: A Case Study of Novice Parallel Programmers},
+@inproceedings{Hochstein05,
+    keywords    = {Application software; Computer aided software engineering; Concurrent computing; Educational
+                  institutions; High performance computing; Humans; Instruments; Productivity; Programming profession;
+                  Software engineering},
+    author      = {Lorin Hochstein and Jeff Carver and Forrest Shull and Sima Asgari and Victor Basili and Jeffrey K. Hollingsworth and Marvin V. Zelkowitz},
+    title       = {Parallel Programmer Productivity: A Case Study of Novice Parallel Programmers},
+    booktitle   = {Supercomputing, 2005. Proceedings of the ACM/IEEE SC 2005 Conference},
+    publisher   = {IEEE},
+    year        = {2005},
+    pages       = {35-35},
+    month       = nov,
+}
 …
+}
+@article{TBB,
+        key     = {TBB},
+        keywords        = {Intel, TBB},
+        title   = {Intel Thread Building Blocks},
+        note            = "\url{https://www.threadingbuildingblocks.org/}"
+@misc{TBB,
+    keywords    = {Intel, TBB},
+    key         = {TBB},
+    title       = {Thread Building Blocks},
+    howpublished= {Intel, \url{https://www.threadingbuildingblocks.org}},
+    note        = {Accessed: 2018-3},
+}
 …
         title   = {C$\forall$ Programmming Language},
         note    = {\url{https://plg.uwaterloo.ca/~cforall}},
+}
-@mastersthesis{rob-thesis,
-        keywords        = {Constructors, Destructors, Tuples},
-        author  = {Rob Schluntz},
-        title   = {Resource Management and Tuples in Cforall},
-        year            = 2017,
-        school  = {University of Waterloo},
-        note    = {\url{https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/11830}},
+}

doc/papers/concurrency/style/cfa-format.tex

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 \usepackage[usenames,dvipsnames]{xcolor}
+%\usepackage[usenames,dvipsnames]{xcolor}
 \usepackage{listings}
 \usepackage{inconsolata}
 …
 % from https://gist.github.com/nikolajquorning/92bbbeef32e1dd80105c9bf2daceb89a
 \lstdefinelanguage{sml} {
+  morekeywords= {
+    EQUAL, GREATER, LESS, NONE, SOME, abstraction, abstype, and, andalso, array, as, before, bool, case, char, datatype, do, else, end, eqtype, exception, exn, false, fn, fun, functor, handle, if, in, include, infix, infixr, int, let, list, local, nil, nonfix, not, o, of, op, open, option, orelse, overload, print, raise, real, rec, ref, sharing, sig, signature, string, struct, structure, substring, then, true, type, unit, val, vector, where, while, with, withtype, word
+  },
+  morestring=[b]",
+  morecomment=[s]{(*}{*)},
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+                bool, case, char, datatype, do, else, end, eqtype, exception, exn, false, fn, fun, functor,
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+                with, withtype, word
+    },
+    morestring=[b]",
+    morecomment=[s]{(*}{*)},
+}
 \lstdefinelanguage{D}{
+  % Keywords
+  morekeywords=[1]{
+    abstract, alias, align, auto, body, break, cast, catch, class, const,
+    continue, debug, delegate, delete, deprecated, do, else, enum, export,
+    false, final, finally, for, foreach, foreach_reverse, function, goto, if,
+    immutable, import, in, inout, interface, invariant, is, lazy, macro, mixin,
+    module, new, nothrow, null, out, override, package, pragma, private,
+    protected, public, pure, ref, return, shared, static, struct, super,
+    switch, synchronized, template, this, throw, true, try, typedef, typeid,
+    typeof, union, unittest, volatile, while, with
+  },
+  % Special identifiers, common functions
+  morekeywords=[2]{enforce},
+  % Ugly identifiers
+  morekeywords=[3]{
+    __DATE__, __EOF__, __FILE__, __LINE__, __TIMESTAMP__, __TIME__, __VENDOR__,
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+    _arguments, _ctor, _dtor
+  },
+  % Basic types
+  morekeywords=[4]{
+     byte, ubyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, cent, ucent, void,
+     bool, bit, float, double, real, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, float,
+     char, wchar, dchar, string, wstring, dstring, ireal, ifloat, idouble,
+     creal, cfloat, cdouble, size_t, ptrdiff_t, sizediff_t, equals_t, hash_t
+  },
+  % Strings
+  morestring=[b]{"},
+  morestring=[b]{'},
+  morestring=[b]{`},
+  % Comments
+  comment=[l]{//},
+  morecomment=[s]{/*}{*/},
+  morecomment=[s][\color{blue}]{/**}{*/},
+  morecomment=[n]{/+}{+/},
+  morecomment=[n][\color{blue}]{/++}{+/},
+  % Options
+  sensitive=true
+        % Keywords
+        morekeywords=[1]{
+                abstract, alias, align, auto, body, break, cast, catch, class, const, continue, debug,
+                delegate, delete, deprecated, do, else, enum, export, false, final, finally, for, foreach,
+                foreach_reverse, function, goto, if, immutable, import, in, inout, interface, invariant, is,
+                lazy, macro, mixin, module, new, nothrow, null, out, override, package, pragma, private,
+                protected, public, pure, ref, return, shared, static, struct, super, switch, synchronized,
+                template, this, throw, true, try, typedef, typeid, typeof, union, unittest, volatile, while,
+                with
+        },
+        % Special identifiers, common functions
+        morekeywords=[2]{enforce},
+        % Ugly identifiers
+        morekeywords=[3]{
+                __DATE__, __EOF__, __FILE__, __LINE__, __TIMESTAMP__, __TIME__, __VENDOR__,
+                __VERSION__, __ctfe, __gshared, __monitor, __thread, __vptr, _argptr,
+                _arguments, _ctor, _dtor
+        },
+        % Basic types
+        morekeywords=[4]{
+                byte, ubyte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, cent, ucent, void, bool, bit, float,
+                double, real, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, float, char, wchar, dchar, string, wstring,
+                dstring, ireal, ifloat, idouble, creal, cfloat, cdouble, size_t, ptrdiff_t, sizediff_t,
+                equals_t, hash_t
+        },
+        % Strings
+        morestring=[b]{"},
+        morestring=[b]{'},
+        morestring=[b]{`},
+        % Comments
+        comment=[l]{//},
+        morecomment=[s]{/*}{*/},
+        morecomment=[s][\color{blue}]{/**}{*/},
+        morecomment=[n]{/+}{+/},
+        morecomment=[n][\color{blue}]{/++}{+/},
+        % Options
+        sensitive=true
+}
 \lstdefinelanguage{rust}{
+  % Keywords
+  morekeywords=[1]{
+    abstract, alignof, as, become, box,
+    break, const, continue, crate, do,
+    else, enum, extern, false, final,
+    fn, for, if, impl, in,
+    let, loop, macro, match, mod,
+    move, mut, offsetof, override, priv,
+    proc, pub, pure, ref, return,
+    Self, self, sizeof, static, struct,
+    super, trait, true,  type, typeof,
+    unsafe, unsized, use, virtual, where,
+    while, yield
+  },
+  % Strings
+  morestring=[b]{"},
+  % Comments
+  comment=[l]{//},
+  morecomment=[s]{/*}{*/},
+  % Options
+  sensitive=true
+        % Keywords
+        morekeywords=[1]{
+                abstract, alignof, as, become, box, break, const, continue, crate, do, else, enum, extern,
+                false, final, fn, for, if, impl, in, let, loop, macro, match, mod, move, mut, offsetof,
+                override, priv, proc, pub, pure, ref, return, Self, self, sizeof, static, struct, super,
+                trait, true, type, typeof, unsafe, unsized, use, virtual, where, while, yield
+        },
+        % Strings
+        morestring=[b]{"},
+        % Comments
+        comment=[l]{//},
+        morecomment=[s]{/*}{*/},
+        % Options
+        sensitive=true
+}
 \lstdefinelanguage{pseudo}{
         morekeywords={string,uint,int,bool,float},%
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         morecomment=[s]{/*}{*/},%
         morestring=[b]',%
         morestring=[b]",%
         morestring=[s]{`}{`},%
 }%
+        morekeywords={string,uint,int,bool,float},
+        sensitive=true,
+        morecomment=[l]{//},
+        morecomment=[s]{/*}{*/},
+        morestring=[b]',
+        morestring=[b]",
+        morestring=[s]{`}{`},
+}
 \newcommand{\KWC}{K-W C\xspace}
 \lstdefinestyle{pseudoStyle}{
   escapeinside={@@},
   basicstyle=\linespread{0.9}\sf\footnotesize,          % reduce line spacing and use typewriter font
   keywordstyle=\bfseries\color{blue},
   keywordstyle=[2]\bfseries\color{Plum},
   commentstyle=\itshape\color{OliveGreen},                  % green and italic comments
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   % moredelim=* detects keywords, comments, strings, and other delimiters and applies their formatting
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+        escapeinside={@@},
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+        escapechar=\$,
+        xleftmargin=\parindentlnth,                                  % indent code to paragraph indentation
+        moredelim=[is][\color{red}\bfseries]{**R**}{**R**},    % red highlighting
+        % moredelim=* detects keywords, comments, strings, and other delimiters and applies their formatting
+        % moredelim=** allows cumulative application
+}
 \lstdefinestyle{defaultStyle}{
   escapeinside={@@},
   basicstyle=\linespread{0.9}\tt\footnotesize,          % reduce line spacing and use typewriter font
   keywordstyle=\bfseries\color{blue},
   keywordstyle=[2]\bfseries\color{Plum},
   commentstyle=\itshape\color{OliveGreen},                  % green and italic comments
   identifierstyle=\color{identifierCol},
   stringstyle=\sf\color{Mahogany},                                % use sanserif font
   mathescape=true,
   columns=fixed,
   aboveskip=4pt,                                  % spacing above/below code block
   belowskip=3pt,
   keepspaces=true,
   tabsize=4,
   % frame=lines,
   literate=,
   showlines=true,                                 % show blank lines at end of code
   showspaces=false,
   showstringspaces=false,
   escapechar=\$,
   xleftmargin=\parindentlnth,                     % indent code to paragraph indentation
   moredelim=[is][\color{red}\bfseries]{**R**}{**R**},    % red highlighting
   % moredelim=* detects keywords, comments, strings, and other delimiters and applies their formatting
   % moredelim=** allows cumulative application
+        escapeinside={@@},
+        basicstyle=\linespread{0.9}\tt\footnotesize,            % reduce line spacing and use typewriter font
+        keywordstyle=\bfseries\color{blue},
+        keywordstyle=[2]\bfseries\color{Plum},
+        commentstyle=\itshape\color{OliveGreen},                    % green and italic comments
+        identifierstyle=\color{identifierCol},
+        stringstyle=\sf\color{Mahogany},                                          % use sanserif font
+        mathescape=true,
+        columns=fixed,
+        aboveskip=4pt,                                                            % spacing above/below code block
+        belowskip=3pt,
+        keepspaces=true,
+        tabsize=4,
+        % frame=lines,
+        literate=,
+        showlines=true,                                                          % show blank lines at end of code
+        showspaces=false,
+        showstringspaces=false,
+        escapechar=\$,
+        xleftmargin=\parindentlnth,                                  % indent code to paragraph indentation
+        moredelim=[is][\color{red}\bfseries]{**R**}{**R**},    % red highlighting
+        % moredelim=* detects keywords, comments, strings, and other delimiters and applies their formatting
+        % moredelim=** allows cumulative application
+}
 \lstdefinestyle{cfaStyle}{
+  escapeinside={@@},
+  basicstyle=\linespread{0.9}\tt\footnotesize,          % reduce line spacing and use typewriter font
+  keywordstyle=\bfseries\color{blue},
+  keywordstyle=[2]\bfseries\color{Plum},
+  commentstyle=\sf\itshape\color{OliveGreen},             % green and italic comments
+  identifierstyle=\color{identifierCol},
+  stringstyle=\sf\color{Mahogany},                                % use sanserif font
+  mathescape=true,
+  columns=fixed,
+  aboveskip=4pt,                                  % spacing above/below code block
+  belowskip=3pt,
+  keepspaces=true,
+  tabsize=4,
+  % frame=lines,
+  literate=,
+  showlines=true,                                 % show blank lines at end of code
+  showspaces=false,
+  showstringspaces=false,
+  escapechar=\$,
+  xleftmargin=\parindentlnth,                     % indent code to paragraph indentation
+  moredelim=[is][\color{red}\bfseries]{**R**}{**R**},    % red highlighting
+  morekeywords=[2]{accept, signal, signal_block, wait, waitfor},
+        escapeinside={@@},
+        basicstyle=\linespread{0.9}\sf,         % reduce line spacing and use typewriter font
+%  keywordstyle=\bfseries\color{blue},
+        keywordstyle=[2]\bfseries\color{red},
+%  commentstyle=\sf\itshape\color{OliveGreen},            % green and italic comments
+        identifierstyle=\color{identifierCol},
+%  stringstyle=\sf\color{Mahogany},                                       % use sanserif font
+        stringstyle=\tt,                                                                                % use typewriter font
+        mathescape=true,
+        columns=fixed,
+        aboveskip=4pt,                                                            % spacing above/below code block
+        belowskip=3pt,
+        keepspaces=true,
+        tabsize=4,
+        % frame=lines,
+        literate=,
+        showlines=true,                                                          % show blank lines at end of code
+        showspaces=false,
+        showstringspaces=false,
+        escapechar=\$,
+        xleftmargin=\parindentlnth,                                  % indent code to paragraph indentation
+        moredelim=[is][\color{red}\bfseries]{**R**}{**R**},    % red highlighting
+        morekeywords=[2]{accept, signal, signal_block, wait, waitfor},
+}
 …
 \lstnewenvironment{ccode}[1][]{
   \lstset{
     language = C,
     style=defaultStyle,
     captionpos=b,
     #1
+  }
+        \lstset{
+                language = C,
+                style=defaultStyle,
+                captionpos=b,
+                #1
+        }
 }{}
 \lstnewenvironment{cfacode}[1][]{
   \lstset{
     language = CFA,
     style=cfaStyle,
     captionpos=b,
     #1
+  }
+        \lstset{
+                language = CFA,
+                style=cfaStyle,
+                captionpos=b,
+                #1
+        }
 }{}
 \lstnewenvironment{pseudo}[1][]{
   \lstset{
     language = pseudo,
     style=pseudoStyle,
     captionpos=b,
     #1
+  }
+        \lstset{
+                language = pseudo,
+                style=pseudoStyle,
+                captionpos=b,
+                #1
+        }
 }{}
 \lstnewenvironment{cppcode}[1][]{
   \lstset{
     language = c++,
     style=defaultStyle,
     captionpos=b,
     #1
+  }
+        \lstset{
+                language = c++,
+                style=defaultStyle,
+                captionpos=b,
+                #1
+        }
 }{}
 \lstnewenvironment{ucppcode}[1][]{
   \lstset{
     language = c++,
     style=defaultStyle,
     captionpos=b,
     #1
+  }
+        \lstset{
+                language = c++,
+                style=defaultStyle,
+                captionpos=b,
+                #1
+        }
 }{}
 \lstnewenvironment{javacode}[1][]{
   \lstset{
     language = java,
     style=defaultStyle,
     captionpos=b,
     #1
+  }
+        \lstset{
+                language = java,
+                style=defaultStyle,
+                captionpos=b,
+                #1
+        }
 }{}
 \lstnewenvironment{scalacode}[1][]{
   \lstset{
     language = scala,
     style=defaultStyle,
     captionpos=b,
     #1
+  }
+        \lstset{
+                language = scala,
+                style=defaultStyle,
+                captionpos=b,
+                #1
+        }
 }{}
 \lstnewenvironment{smlcode}[1][]{
   \lstset{
     language = sml,
     style=defaultStyle,
     captionpos=b,
     #1
+  }
+        \lstset{
+                language = sml,
+                style=defaultStyle,
+                captionpos=b,
+                #1
+        }
 }{}
 \lstnewenvironment{dcode}[1][]{
   \lstset{
     language = D,
     style=defaultStyle,
     captionpos=b,
     #1
+  }
+        \lstset{
+                language = D,
+                style=defaultStyle,
+                captionpos=b,
+                #1
+        }
 }{}
 \lstnewenvironment{rustcode}[1][]{
   \lstset{
     language = rust,
     style=defaultStyle,
     captionpos=b,
     #1
+  }
+        \lstset{
+                language = rust,
+                style=defaultStyle,
+                captionpos=b,
+                #1
+        }
 }{}
 \lstnewenvironment{gocode}[1][]{
   \lstset{
     language = Golang,
     style=defaultStyle,
     captionpos=b,
     #1
+  }
+        \lstset{
+                language = Golang,
+                style=defaultStyle,
+                captionpos=b,
+                #1
+        }
 }{}
 …
 \newcommand{\code}[1]{\lstinline[language=CFA,style=cfaStyle]{#1}}
 \newcommand{\pscode}[1]{\lstinline[language=pseudo,style=pseudoStyle]{#1}}
+% Local Variables: %
+% tab-width: 4 %
+% fill-column: 100 %
+% End: %

doc/papers/general/.gitignore

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 *.pdf
 *.ps
+Paper.tex.plain
+mail
+Paper.out.ps
+WileyNJD-AMA.bst

doc/papers/general/Makefile

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 Build = build
 Figures = figures
 Macros = ../../LaTeXmacros
+Macros = AMA/AMA-stix/ama
 TeXLIB = .:${Macros}:${Build}:../../bibliography:
 LaTeX  = TEXINPUTS=${TeXLIB} && export TEXINPUTS && latex -halt-on-error -output-directory=${Build}
 BibTeX = BIBINPUTS=${TeXLIB} && export BIBINPUTS && bibtex
 MAKEFLAGS = --no-print-directory --silent #
+MAKEFLAGS = --no-print-directory # --silent
 VPATH = ${Build} ${Figures} evaluation
 …
 DOCUMENT = Paper.pdf
+BASE = ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}
 # Directives #
 …
 clean :
         @rm -frv ${DOCUMENT} ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}.ps ${Build}
+        @rm -frv ${DOCUMENT} ${BASE}.ps WileyNJD-AMA.bst ${BASE}.out.ps ${Build}
 # File Dependencies #
 ${DOCUMENT} : ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}.ps
+${DOCUMENT} : ${BASE}.ps
         ps2pdf $<
 ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}.ps : ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}.dvi
+${BASE}.ps : ${BASE}.dvi
         dvips ${Build}/$< -o $@
 ${basename ${DOCUMENT}}.dvi : Makefile ${Build} ${GRAPHS} ${PROGRAMS} ${PICTURES} ${FIGURES} ${SOURCES} \
                 ${Macros}/common.tex ${Macros}/indexstyle ../../bibliography/pl.bib
+${BASE}.dvi : Makefile ${Build} ${BASE}.out.ps WileyNJD-AMA.bst ${GRAPHS} ${PROGRAMS} ${PICTURES} ${FIGURES} ${SOURCES} \
+                ../../bibliography/pl.bib
         # Must have *.aux file containing citations for bibtex
         if [ ! -r ${basename $@}.aux ] ; then ${LaTeX} ${basename $@}.tex ; fi
         -${BibTeX} ${Build}/${basename $@}
+        ${BibTeX} ${Build}/${basename $@}
         # Some citations reference others so run again to resolve these citations
         ${LaTeX} ${basename $@}.tex
         -${BibTeX} ${Build}/${basename $@}
+        ${BibTeX} ${Build}/${basename $@}
         # Run again to finish citations
         ${LaTeX} ${basename $@}.tex
 …
 ${Build}:
         mkdir -p ${Build}
+${BASE}.out.ps:
+        ln -fs build/Paper.out.ps .
+WileyNJD-AMA.bst:
+        ln -fs AMA/AMA-stix/ama/WileyNJD-AMA.bst .
 ${GRAPHS} : timing.gp timing.dat

doc/papers/general/Paper.tex

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
+\documentclass{article}
+\usepackage{fullpage}
+\documentclass[AMA,STIX1COL]{WileyNJD-v2}
+\articletype{RESEARCH ARTICLE}%
+\received{26 April 2016}
+\revised{6 June 2016}
+\accepted{6 June 2016}
+\raggedbottom
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+% Latex packages used in the document.
 \usepackage{epic,eepic}
+\usepackage{xspace,calc,comment}
+\usepackage{xspace}
+\usepackage{comment}
 \usepackage{upquote}                                            % switch curled `'" to straight
 \usepackage{listings}                                           % format program code
+\usepackage{enumitem}
+\setlist[itemize]{topsep=3pt,itemsep=2pt,parsep=0pt}% global
+\usepackage[flushmargin]{footmisc}                      % support label/reference in footnote
+\usepackage{rotating}
+\usepackage[usenames]{color}
+\usepackage{pslatex}                                            % reduce size of san serif font
+\usepackage[plainpages=false,pdfpagelabels,pdfpagemode=UseNone,pagebackref=true,breaklinks=true,colorlinks=true,linkcolor=blue,citecolor=blue,urlcolor=blue]{hyperref}
+\urlstyle{sf}
+\usepackage{breakurl}
+\setlength{\textheight}{9in}
+%\oddsidemargin 0.0in
+\renewcommand{\topfraction}{0.8}                        % float must be greater than X of the page before it is forced onto its own page
+\renewcommand{\bottomfraction}{0.8}                     % float must be greater than X of the page before it is forced onto its own page
+\renewcommand{\floatpagefraction}{0.8}          % float must be greater than X of the page before it is forced onto its own page
+\renewcommand{\textfraction}{0.0}                       % the entire page maybe devoted to floats with no text on the page at all
+%\usepackage{enumitem}
+%\setlist[itemize]{topsep=3pt,itemsep=2pt,parsep=0pt}% global
+%\usepackage{rotating}
+\hypersetup{breaklinks=true}
+\definecolor{ForestGreen}{cmyk}{1, 0, 0.99995, 0}
+\usepackage[pagewise]{lineno}
+\renewcommand{\linenumberfont}{\scriptsize\sffamily}
 \lefthyphenmin=4                                                        % hyphen only after 4 characters
 \righthyphenmin=4
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
 % Names used in the document.
 …
 \newlength{\gcolumnposn}                                        % temporary hack because lstlisting does not handle tabs correctly
 \newlength{\columnposn}
 \setlength{\gcolumnposn}{2.75in}
+\setlength{\gcolumnposn}{3.5in}
 \setlength{\columnposn}{\gcolumnposn}
 \newcommand{\C}[2][\@empty]{\ifx#1\@empty\else\global\setlength{\columnposn}{#1}\global\columnposn=\columnposn\fi\hfill\makebox[\textwidth-\columnposn][l]{\lst@basicstyle{\LstCommentStyle{#2}}}}
 …
 }%
 \newcommand{\ETAL}{\abbrevFont{et}~\abbrevFont{al}}
 \newcommand*{\etal}{%
+\renewcommand*{\etal}{%
         \@ifnextchar{.}{\protect\ETAL}%
                 {\protect\ETAL.\xspace}%
 …
 belowskip=3pt,
 % replace/adjust listing characters that look bad in sanserif
 literate={-}{\makebox[1ex][c]{\raisebox{0.4ex}{\rule{0.8ex}{0.1ex}}}}1 {^}{\raisebox{0.6ex}{$\scriptscriptstyle\land\,$}}1
         {~}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{$\scriptstyle\sim\,$}}1 {@}{\small{@}}1 % {`}{\ttfamily\upshape\hspace*{-0.1ex}`}1
         {<-}{$\leftarrow$}2 {=>}{$\Rightarrow$}2 {->}{\makebox[1ex][c]{\raisebox{0.4ex}{\rule{0.8ex}{0.075ex}}}\kern-0.2ex\textgreater}2,
+literate={-}{\makebox[1ex][c]{\raisebox{0.4ex}{\rule{0.8ex}{0.1ex}}}}1 {^}{\raisebox{0.6ex}{$\scriptstyle\land\,$}}1
+        {~}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{$\scriptstyle\sim\,$}}1 % {`}{\ttfamily\upshape\hspace*{-0.1ex}`}1
+        {<-}{$\leftarrow$}2 {=>}{$\Rightarrow$}2 {->}{\makebox[1ex][c]{\raisebox{0.5ex}{\rule{0.8ex}{0.075ex}}}\kern-0.2ex{\textgreater}}2,
 moredelim=**[is][\color{red}]{`}{`},
 }% lstset
-% inline code @...@
-\lstMakeShortInline@%
 \lstnewenvironment{cfa}[1][]
 …
 {}
+\title{\protect\CFA : Adding Modern Programming Language Features to C}
+\author{Aaron Moss, Robert Schluntz, Peter Buhr}
+% \email{a3moss@uwaterloo.ca}
+% \email{rschlunt@uwaterloo.ca}
+% \email{pabuhr@uwaterloo.ca}
+% \affiliation{%
+%       \institution{University of Waterloo}
+%       \department{David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science}
+%       \streetaddress{Davis Centre, University of Waterloo}
+%       \city{Waterloo}
+%       \state{ON}
+%       \postcode{N2L 3G1}
+%       \country{Canada}
+% }
+%\terms{generic, tuple, variadic, types}
+%\keywords{generic types, tuple types, variadic types, polymorphic functions, C, Cforall}
+\begin{document}
+\maketitle
+\begin{abstract}
+% inline code @...@
+\lstMakeShortInline@%
+\title{\texorpdfstring{\protect\CFA : Adding Modern Programming Language Features to C}{Cforall : Adding Modern Programming Language Features to C}}
+\author[1]{Aaron Moss}
+\author[1]{Robert Schluntz}
+\author[1]{Peter A. Buhr*}
+\authormark{Aaron Moss \textsc{et al}}
+\address[1]{\orgdiv{David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science}, \orgname{University of Waterloo}, \orgaddress{\state{Ontario}, \country{Canada}}}
+\corres{*Peter A. Buhr, \email{pabuhr{\char`\@}uwaterloo.ca}}
+\presentaddress{David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3G1, Canada}
+\abstract[Summary]{
 The C programming language is a foundational technology for modern computing with millions of lines of code implementing everything from commercial operating-systems to hobby projects.
 This installation base and the programmers producing it represent a massive software-engineering investment spanning decades and likely to continue for decades more.
 …
 This paper presents a quick tour of \CFA features showing how their design avoids shortcomings of similar features in C and other C-like languages.
 Finally, experimental results are presented to validate several of the new features.
+\end{abstract}
+}%
+\keywords{generic types, tuple types, variadic types, polymorphic functions, C, Cforall}
+\begin{document}
+\linenumbers                                            % comment out to turn off line numbering
+\maketitle
 …
 Love it or hate it, C is extremely popular, highly used, and one of the few systems languages.
 In many cases, \CC is often used solely as a better C.
 Nonetheless, C, first standardized over thirty years ago, lacks many features that make programming in more modern languages safer and more productive.
+Nevertheless, C, first standardized over thirty years ago, lacks many features that make programming in more modern languages safer and more productive.
 \CFA (pronounced ``C-for-all'', and written \CFA or Cforall) is an evolutionary extension of the C programming language that aims to add modern language features to C while maintaining both source compatibility with C and a familiar programming model for programmers.
 …
 \CFA is currently implemented as a source-to-source translator from \CFA to the gcc-dialect of C~\cite{GCCExtensions}, allowing it to leverage the portability and code optimizations provided by gcc, meeting goals (1)--(3).
 Ultimately, a compiler is necessary for advanced features and optimal performance.
 All of the features discussed in this paper are working, unless a feature states it is a future feature for completion.
+All features discussed in this paper are working, unless otherwise stated as under construction.
 Finally, it is impossible to describe a programming language without usages before definitions.
 …
 \begin{cfa}
 int max = 2147483647;                                           $\C[3.75in]{// (1)}$
+int max = 2147483647;                                   $\C[4in]{// (1)}$
 double max = 1.7976931348623157E+308;   $\C{// (2)}$
 int max( int a, int b ) { return a < b ? b : a; }  $\C{// (3)}$
 double max( double a, double b ) { return a < b ? b : a; }  $\C{// (4)}\CRT$
 max( 7, -max );                                                         $\C{// uses (3) and (1), by matching int from constant 7}$
 max( max, 3.14 );                                                       $\C{// uses (4) and (2), by matching double from constant 3.14}$
 max( max, -max );                                                       $\C{// ERROR: ambiguous}$
 int m = max( max, -max );                                       $\C{// uses (3) and (1) twice, by matching return type}$
+max( 7, -max );                                         $\C[2.75in]{// uses (3) and (1), by matching int from constant 7}$
+max( max, 3.14 );                                       $\C{// uses (4) and (2), by matching double from constant 3.14}$
+max( max, -max );                                       $\C{// ERROR: ambiguous}$
+int m = max( max, -max );                       $\C{// uses (3) and (1) twice, by matching return type}\CRT$
 \end{cfa}
 …
 \begin{cfa}
 `forall( otype T )` T identity( T val ) { return val; }
 int forty_two = identity( 42 );                         $\C{// T is bound to int, forty\_two == 42}$
+int forty_two = identity( 42 );         $\C{// T is bound to int, forty\_two == 42}$
 \end{cfa}
 This @identity@ function can be applied to any complete \newterm{object type} (or @otype@).
 …
 For example, the function @twice@ can be defined using the \CFA syntax for operator overloading:
 \begin{cfa}
 forall( otype T `| { T ?+?(T, T); }` ) T twice( T x ) { return x `+` x; }       $\C{// ? denotes operands}$
+forall( otype T `| { T ?+?(T, T); }` ) T twice( T x ) { return x `+` x; }  $\C{// ? denotes operands}$
 int val = twice( twice( 3.7 ) );
 \end{cfa}
 …
+}
 double key = 5.0, vals[10] = { /* 10 sorted float values */ };
 double * val = (double *)bsearch( &key, vals, 10, sizeof(vals[0]), comp );      $\C{// search sorted array}$
+double * val = (double *)bsearch( &key, vals, 10, sizeof(vals[0]), comp ); $\C{// search sorted array}$
 \end{cfa}
 which can be augmented simply with a generalized, type-safe, \CFA-overloaded wrappers:
 …
 forall( otype T | { int ?<?( T, T ); } ) unsigned int bsearch( T key, const T * arr, size_t size ) {
         T * result = bsearch( key, arr, size ); $\C{// call first version}$
         return result ? result - arr : size;    $\C{// pointer subtraction includes sizeof(T)}$
+}
 double * val = bsearch( 5.0, vals, 10 );        $\C{// selection based on return type}$
+        return result ? result - arr : size; $\C{// pointer subtraction includes sizeof(T)}$
+}
+double * val = bsearch( 5.0, vals, 10 ); $\C{// selection based on return type}$
 int posn = bsearch( 5.0, vals, 10 );
 \end{cfa}
 …
 forall( otype T | { int ?<?( T, T ); } ) void qsort( const T * arr, size_t size ) { /* use C qsort */ }
+{
         int ?<?( double x, double y ) { return x `>` y; }       $\C{// locally override behaviour}$
+        int ?<?( double x, double y ) { return x `>` y; } $\C{// locally override behaviour}$
         qsort( vals, size );                                    $\C{// descending sort}$
+}
 …
 Within the block, the nested version of @?<?@ performs @?>?@ and this local version overrides the built-in @?<?@ so it is passed to @qsort@.
 Hence, programmers can easily form local environments, adding and modifying appropriate functions, to maximize reuse of other existing functions and types.
+Under construction is a mechanism to distribute @forall@ over routines/types, where each block declaration is prefixed with the initial @forall@ clause significantly reducing duplication (see @stack@ examples in Section~\ref{sec:eval}):
+\begin{cfa}
+forall( otype `T` ) {                                                   $\C{// forall block}$
+        struct stack { stack_node(`T`) * head; };       $\C{// generic type}$
+        void push( stack(`T`) & s, `T` value ) ...      $\C{// generic operations}$
+        T pop( stack(`T`) & s ) ...
+}
+\end{cfa}
 …
         T ?+=?( T *, T );
         T ++?( T * );
         T ?++( T * ); };
+        T ?++( T * );
+};
 forall( otype T `| summable( T )` ) T sum( T a[$\,$], size_t size ) {  // use trait
         `T` total = { `0` };                                    $\C{// instantiate T from 0 by calling its constructor}$
         for ( unsigned int i = 0; i < size; i += 1 ) total `+=` a[i]; $\C{// select appropriate +}$
+        return total; }
+        return total;
+}
 \end{cfa}
 …
         void ?{}( T &, T );                                             $\C{// copy constructor}$
         void ?=?( T &, T );                                             $\C{// assignment operator}$
+        void ^?{}( T & ); };                                    $\C{// destructor}$
+        void ^?{}( T & );                                               $\C{// destructor}$
+};
 \end{cfa}
 Given the information provided for an @otype@, variables of polymorphic type can be treated as if they were a complete type: stack-allocatable, default or copy-initialized, assigned, and deleted.
 …
 One approach is to write bespoke data-structures for each context in which they are needed.
 While this approach is flexible and supports integration with the C type-checker and tooling, it is also tedious and error-prone, especially for more complex data structures.
 A second approach is to use @void *@ based polymorphism, \eg the C standard-library functions @bsearch@ and @qsort@, which allow reuse of code with common functionality.
+A second approach is to use @void *@-based polymorphism, \eg the C standard-library functions @bsearch@ and @qsort@, which allow reuse of code with common functionality.
 However, basing all polymorphism on @void *@ eliminates the type-checker's ability to ensure that argument types are properly matched, often requiring a number of extra function parameters, pointer indirection, and dynamic allocation that is not otherwise needed.
 A third approach to generic code is to use preprocessor macros, which does allow the generated code to be both generic and type-checked, but errors may be difficult to interpret.
 …
 Results of these layout functions are cached so that they are only computed once per type per function. %, as in the example below for @pair@.
 Layout functions also allow generic types to be used in a function definition without reflecting them in the function signature.
 For instance, a function that strips duplicate values from an unsorted @vector(T)@ would likely have a pointer to the vector as its only explicit parameter, but use some sort of @set(T)@ internally to test for duplicate values.
+For instance, a function that strips duplicate values from an unsorted @vector(T)@ likely has a pointer to the vector as its only explicit parameter, but uses some sort of @set(T)@ internally to test for duplicate values.
 This function could acquire the layout for @set(T)@ by calling its layout function with the layout of @T@ implicitly passed into the function.
 …
 struct litres {};
 forall( dtype U) scalar(U) ?+?( scalar(U) a, scalar(U) b ) {
+forall( dtype U ) scalar(U) ?+?( scalar(U) a, scalar(U) b ) {
         return (scalar(U)){ a.value + b.value };
+}
 …
 [ q, r ] = div( 13.5, 5.2 );                            $\C{// assign into tuple}$
 \end{cfa}
 Clearly, this approach is straightforward to understand and use;
+This approach is straightforward to understand and use;
 therefore, why do few programming languages support this obvious feature or provide it awkwardly?
 The answer is that there are complex consequences that cascade through multiple aspects of the language, especially the type-system.
+To answer, there are complex consequences that cascade through multiple aspects of the language, especially the type-system.
 This section show these consequences and how \CFA handles them.
 …
 p`->0` = 5;                                                                     $\C{// change quotient}$
 bar( qr`.1`, qr );                                                      $\C{// pass remainder and quotient/remainder}$
 rem = [div( 13, 5 ), 42]`.0.1`;                         $\C{// access 2nd component of 1st component of tuple expression}$
+rem = [div( 13, 5 ), 42]`.0.1`;                         $\C{// access 2nd component of 1st component}$
 \end{cfa}
 …
 Tuple flattening recursively expands a tuple into the list of its basic components.
 Tuple structuring packages a list of expressions into a value of tuple type, \eg:
-%\lstDeleteShortInline@%
-%\par\smallskip
-%\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{1.5\parindent}}||@{\hspace{1.5\parindent}}l@{}}
 \begin{cfa}
 int f( int, int );
 int g( [int, int] );
 int h( int, [int, int] );
+[int] g( [int, int] );
+[int] h( int, [int, int] );
 [int, int] x;
 int y;
+f( x );                 $\C{// flatten}$
+g( y, 10 );             $\C{// structure}$
+h( x, y );              $\C{// flatten and structure}$
+\end{cfa}
+%\end{cfa}
+%&
+%\begin{cfa}
+%\end{tabular}
+%\smallskip\par\noindent
+%\lstMakeShortInline@%
+f( x );                                                                         $\C{// flatten}$
+g( y, 10 );                                                                     $\C{// structure}$
+h( x, y );                                                                      $\C{// flatten and structure}$
+\end{cfa}
 In the call to @f@, @x@ is implicitly flattened so the components of @x@ are passed as the two arguments.
 In the call to @g@, the values @y@ and @10@ are structured into a single argument of type @[int, int]@ to match the parameter type of @g@.
 …
 An assignment where the left side is a tuple type is called \newterm{tuple assignment}.
 There are two kinds of tuple assignment depending on whether the right side of the assignment operator has a tuple type or a non-tuple type, called \newterm{multiple} and \newterm{mass assignment}, respectively.
-%\lstDeleteShortInline@%
-%\par\smallskip
-%\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{1.5\parindent}}||@{\hspace{1.5\parindent}}l@{}}
 \begin{cfa}
 int x = 10;
 …
 [y, x] = 3.14;                                                          $\C{// mass assignment}$
 \end{cfa}
-%\end{cfa}
-%&
-%\begin{cfa}
-%\end{tabular}
-%\smallskip\par\noindent
-%\lstMakeShortInline@%
 Both kinds of tuple assignment have parallel semantics, so that each value on the left and right side is evaluated before any assignments occur.
 As a result, it is possible to swap the values in two variables without explicitly creating any temporary variables or calling a function, \eg, @[x, y] = [y, x]@.
 …
 This example shows mass, multiple, and cascading assignment used in one expression:
 \begin{cfa}
 void f( [int, int] );
+[void] f( [int, int] );
 f( [x, y] = z = 1.5 );                                          $\C{// assignments in parameter list}$
 \end{cfa}
 …
 Here, the mass assignment sets all members of @s@ to zero.
 Since tuple-index expressions are a form of member-access expression, it is possible to use tuple-index expressions in conjunction with member tuple expressions to manually restructure a tuple (\eg rearrange, drop, and duplicate components).
-%\lstDeleteShortInline@%
-%\par\smallskip
-%\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{1.5\parindent}}||@{\hspace{1.5\parindent}}l@{}}
 \begin{cfa}
 [int, int, long, double] x;
 …
 [int, int, int] y = x.[2, 0, 2];                        $\C{// duplicate: [y.0, y.1, y.2] = [x.2, x.0.x.2]}$
 \end{cfa}
-%\end{cfa}
-%&
-%\begin{cfa}
-%\end{tabular}
-%\smallskip\par\noindent
-%\lstMakeShortInline@%
 It is also possible for a member access to contain other member accesses, \eg:
 \begin{cfa}
 …
 Since @void@ is effectively a 0-element tuple, (3) discards the first and third return values, which is effectively equivalent to @[(int)(g().1.0), (int)(g().1.1)]@).
 Note that a cast is not a function call in \CFA, so flattening and structuring conversions do not occur for cast expressions\footnote{User-defined conversions have been considered, but for compatibility with C and the existing use of casts as type ascription, any future design for such conversions would require more precise matching of types than allowed for function arguments and parameters.}.
+Note that a cast is not a function call in \CFA, so flattening and structuring conversions do not occur for cast expressions\footnote{User-defined conversions have been considered, but for compatibility with C and the existing use of casts as type ascription, any future design for such conversions requires more precise matching of types than allowed for function arguments and parameters.}.
 As such, (4) is invalid because the cast target type contains 4 components, while the source type contains only 3.
 Similarly, (5) is invalid because the cast @([int, int, int])(g().1)@ is invalid.
 …
 where @[5, "hello"]@ is flattened, giving argument list @5, "hello"@, and @T@ binds to @int@ and @U@ binds to @const char@.
 Tuples, however, may contain polymorphic components.
 For example, a plus operator can be written to add two triples together.
+For example, a plus operator can be written to sum two triples.
 \begin{cfa}
 forall( otype T | { T ?+?( T, T ); } ) [T, T, T] ?+?( [T, T, T] x, [T, T, T] y ) {
 …
 Flattening and restructuring conversions are also applied to tuple types in polymorphic type assertions.
 \begin{cfa}
 int f( [int, double], double );
+[int] f( [int, double], double );
 forall( otype T, otype U | { T f( T, U, U ); } ) void g( T, U );
 g( 5, 10.21 );
 …
 % \end{cfa}
 % so the thunk provides flattening and structuring conversions to inferred functions, improving the compatibility of tuples and polymorphism.
 % These thunks are generated locally using gcc nested-functions, rather hositing them to the external scope, so they can easily access local state.
+% These thunks are generated locally using gcc nested-functions, rather hoisting them to the external scope, so they can easily access local state.
 …
 As such, @ttype@ variables are also called \newterm{argument packs}.
 Like variadic templates, the main way to manipulate @ttype@ polymorphic functions is via recursion.
+Like variadic templates, @ttype@ polymorphic functions are primarily manipulated via recursion.
 Since nothing is known about a parameter pack by default, assertion parameters are key to doing anything meaningful.
 Unlike variadic templates, @ttype@ polymorphic functions can be separately compiled.
 For example, a generalized @sum@ function written using @ttype@:
+For example, a generalized @sum@ function:
 \begin{cfa}
 int sum$\(_0\)$() { return 0; }
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
 \begin{cfa}
 case 2, 10, 34, 42:
 …
 \lstMakeShortInline@%
 \end{cquote}
 for a contiguous list:\footnote{gcc has the same mechanism but awkward syntax, \lstinline@2 ...42@, because a space is required after a number, otherwise the period is a decimal point.}
+for a contiguous list:\footnote{gcc has the same mechanism but awkward syntax, \lstinline@2 ...42@, as a space is required after a number, otherwise the first period is a decimal point.}
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
 \begin{cfa}
 case 2~42:
 …
 \end{cfa}
 C allows placement of @case@ clauses \emph{within} statements nested in the @switch@ body (see Duff's device~\cite{Duff83});
+C allows placement of @case@ clauses \emph{within} statements nested in the @switch@ body (called Duff's device~\cite{Duff83});
 \begin{cfa}
 switch ( i ) {
 …
+}
 \end{cfa}
 \CFA precludes this form of transfer into a control structure because it causes undefined behaviour, especially with respect to missed initialization, and provides very limited functionality.
+\CFA precludes this form of transfer \emph{into} a control structure because it causes undefined behaviour, especially with respect to missed initialization, and provides very limited functionality.
 C allows placement of declaration within the @switch@ body and unreachable code at the start, resulting in undefined behaviour:
 …
 \end{figure}
+Finally, @fallthrough@ may appear in contexts other than terminating a @case@ clause, and have an explicit transfer label allowing separate cases but common final-code for a set of cases:
+\begin{cquote}
+Finally, Figure~\ref{f:FallthroughStatement} shows @fallthrough@ may appear in contexts other than terminating a @case@ clause, and have an explicit transfer label allowing separate cases but common final-code for a set of cases.
+The target label must be below the @fallthrough@ and may not be nested in a control structure, \ie @fallthrough@ cannot form a loop, and the target label must be at the same or higher level as the containing @case@ clause and located at the same level as a @case@ clause;
+the target label may be case @default@, but only associated with the current @switch@/@choose@ statement.
+\begin{figure}
+\centering
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 …
   case 4:
         ... `fallthrough common;`
   common:
+  `common`: // below fallthrough at same level as case clauses
         ...      // common code for cases 3 and 4
         // implicit break
 …
 \end{tabular}
 \lstMakeShortInline@%
+\end{cquote}
+The target label may be case @default@.
+Collectively, these control-structure enhancements reduce programmer burden and increase readability and safety.
+\caption{\lstinline|fallthrough| Statement}
+\label{f:FallthroughStatement}
+\end{figure}
 …
         R r;
         ... `resume( r );` ...
         ... r.fix // control does return here after handler
+        ... r.fix // control returns here after handler
+}
 `try` {
 …
 \subsection{\texorpdfstring{\protect\lstinline{with} Clause / Statement}{with Clause / Statement}}
 \label{s:WithClauseStatement}
+\subsection{\texorpdfstring{\protect\lstinline{with} Statement}{with Statement}}
+\label{s:WithStatement}
 Grouping heterogeneous data into \newterm{aggregate}s (structure/union) is a common programming practice, and an aggregate can be further organized into more complex structures, such as arrays and containers:
 …
 A similar situation occurs in object-oriented programming, \eg \CC:
 \begin{C++}
 class C {
+struct S {
         char c;                                                                 $\C{// fields}$
         int i;
         double d;
         int f() {                                                               $\C{// implicit ``this'' aggregate}$
+        void f() {                                                              $\C{// implicit ``this'' aggregate}$
                 `this->`c; `this->`i; `this->`d;        $\C{// access containing fields}$
+        }
+}
 \end{C++}
 Object-oriented nesting of member functions in a \lstinline[language=C++]@class@ allows eliding \lstinline[language=C++]@this->@ because of lexical scoping.
+Object-oriented nesting of member functions in a \lstinline[language=C++]@class/struct@ allows eliding \lstinline[language=C++]@this->@ because of lexical scoping.
 However, for other aggregate parameters, qualification is necessary:
 \begin{cfa}
 struct T { double m, n; };
 int C::f( T & t ) {                                                     $\C{// multiple aggregate parameters}$
         c; i; d;                                                                $\C{\color{red}// this-\textgreater.c, this-\textgreater.i, this-\textgreater.d}$
+int S::f( T & t ) {                                                     $\C{// multiple aggregate parameters}$
+        c; i; d;                                                                $\C{\color{red}// this--{\textgreater}.c, this--{\textgreater}.i, this--{\textgreater}.d}$
         `t.`m; `t.`n;                                                   $\C{// must qualify}$
+}
 …
 with the generality of opening multiple aggregate-parameters:
 \begin{cfa}
 int f( S & s, T & t ) `with ( s, t )` {         $\C{// multiple aggregate parameters}$
+void f( S & s, T & t ) `with ( s, t )` {                $\C{// multiple aggregate parameters}$
         c; i; d;                                                                $\C{\color{red}// s.c, s.i, s.d}$
         m; n;                                                                   $\C{\color{red}// t.m, t.n}$
 …
 \begin{cfa}
 struct S { int i, j; } sv;
 with ( sv ) {                                                           $\C{implicit reference}$
+with ( sv ) {                                                           $\C{// implicit reference}$
         S & sr = sv;
         with ( sr ) {                                                   $\C{explicit reference}$
+        with ( sr ) {                                                   $\C{// explicit reference}$
                 S * sp = &sv;
                 with ( *sp ) {                                          $\C{computed reference}$
                         i = 3; j = 4;                                   $\C{\color{red}// sp-{\textgreater}i, sp-{\textgreater}j}$
+                with ( *sp ) {                                          $\C{// computed reference}$
+                        i = 3; j = 4;                                   $\C{\color{red}// sp--{\textgreater}i, sp--{\textgreater}j}$
+                }
                 i = 2; j = 3;                                           $\C{\color{red}// sr.i, sr.j}$
 …
+}
 \end{cfa}
+Collectively, these control-structure enhancements reduce programmer burden and increase readability and safety.
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
 \begin{cfa}
 `[5] *` int x1;
 …
 \begin{cfa}
 // array of 5 pointers to int
 // pointer to an array of 5 int
 // function returning pointer to an array of 5 int and taking an int
+// pointer to array of 5 int
+// function returning pointer to array of 5 int and taking int
 \end{cfa}
 \end{tabular}
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
 \begin{cfa}
 `*` int x, y;
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{C}}      \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{C}}     \\
 \begin{cfa}
 [ 5 ] int z;
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{1em}}l@{\hspace{1em}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{1em}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}        & \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{1em}}}{\textbf{C}} \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{C}}     \\
 \begin{cfa}
 extern const * const int x;
 static const * [ 5 ] const int y;
+static const * [5] const int y;
 \end{cfa}
+&
 \begin{cfa}
 int extern const * const x;
 static const int (* const y)[ 5 ]
+static const int (* const y)[5]
 \end{cfa}
+&
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
 \begin{cfa}
 y = (* int)x;
 …
 as well, parameter names are optional, \eg:
 \begin{cfa}
 [ int x ] f ( /* void */ );                                     $\C{// returning int with no parameters}$
 [ int x ] f (...);                                                      $\C{// returning int with unknown parameters}$
 [ * int ] g ( int y );                                          $\C{// returning pointer to int with int parameter}$
 [ void ] h ( int, char );                                       $\C{// returning no result with int and char parameters}$
 [ * int, int ] j ( int );                                       $\C{// returning pointer to int and int, with int parameter}$
+[ int x ] f ( /* void */ );             $\C[2.5in]{// returning int with no parameters}$
+[ int x ] f (...);                              $\C{// returning int with unknown parameters}$
+[ * int ] g ( int y );                  $\C{// returning pointer to int with int parameter}$
+[ void ] h ( int, char );               $\C{// returning no result with int and char parameters}$
+[ * int, int ] j ( int );               $\C{// returning pointer to int and int with int parameter}$
 \end{cfa}
 This syntax allows a prototype declaration to be created by cutting and pasting source text from the function-definition header (or vice versa).
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
 \begin{cfa}
 [double] foo(), foo( int ), foo( double ) {...}
 …
 The syntax for pointers to \CFA functions specifies the pointer name on the right, \eg:
 \begin{cfa}
 * [ int x ] () fp;                                                      $\C{// pointer to function returning int with no parameters}$
 * [ * int ] ( int y ) gp;                                       $\C{// pointer to function returning pointer to int with int parameter}$
 * [ ] ( int, char ) hp;                                         $\C{// pointer to function returning no result with int and char parameters}$
 * [ * int, int ] ( int ) jp;                            $\C{// pointer to function returning pointer to int and int, with int parameter}$
+* [ int x ] () fp;                              $\C{// pointer to function returning int with no parameters}$
+* [ * int ] ( int y ) gp;               $\C{// pointer to function returning pointer to int with int parameter}$
+* [ ] ( int, char ) hp;                 $\C{// pointer to function returning no result with int and char parameters}$
+* [ * int, int ] ( int ) jp;    $\C{// pointer to function returning pointer to int and int with int parameter}$
 \end{cfa}
 Note, a function name cannot be specified:
 \begin{cfa}
 * [ int x ] f () fp;                                            $\C{// function name "f" is disallowed}$
+* [ int x ] f () fp;                    $\C{// function name "f" is disallowed}\CRT$
 \end{cfa}
 …
 \begin{cfa}
 struct S { double x, y; };
 int i, j;
+int x, y;
 void f( int & i, int & j, S & s, int v[] );
 f( 3, i + j, (S){ 1.0, 7.0 }, (int [3]){ 1, 2, 3 } );   $\C{// pass rvalue to lvalue \(\Rightarrow\) implicit temporary}$
+f( 3, x + y, (S){ 1.0, 7.0 }, (int [3]){ 1, 2, 3 } ); $\C{// pass rvalue to lvalue \(\Rightarrow\) implicit temporary}$
 \end{cfa}
 This allows complex values to be succinctly and efficiently passed to functions, without the syntactic overhead of explicit definition of a temporary variable or the runtime cost of pass-by-value.
 …
 One of the strengths (and weaknesses) of C is memory-management control, allowing resource release to be precisely specified versus unknown release with garbage-collected memory-management.
 However, this manual approach is often verbose, and it is useful to manage resources other than memory (\eg file handles) using the same mechanism as memory.
+However, this manual approach is verbose, and it is useful to manage resources other than memory (\eg file handles) using the same mechanism as memory.
 \CC addresses these issues using Resource Aquisition Is Initialization (RAII), implemented by means of \newterm{constructor} and \newterm{destructor} functions;
 \CFA adopts constructors and destructors (and @finally@) to facilitate RAII.
 …
+{
         VLA  x,            y = { 20, 0x01 },     z = y; $\C{// z points to y}$
         //      ?{}( x );  ?{}( y, 20, 0x01 );  ?{}( z, y );
+        //    ?{}( x );   ?{}( y, 20, 0x01 );    ?{}( z, y );
         ^x{};                                                                   $\C{// deallocate x}$
         x{};                                                                    $\C{// reallocate x}$
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \begin{cfa}
 _`hh`     // signed char
 …
 For readability, it is useful to associate units to scale literals, \eg weight (stone, pound, kilogram) or time (seconds, minutes, hours).
 The left of Figure~\ref{f:UserLiteral} shows the \CFA alternative call-syntax (literal argument before function name), using the backquote, to convert basic literals into user literals.
+The left of Figure~\ref{f:UserLiteral} shows the \CFA alternative call-syntax (postfix: literal argument before function name), using the backquote, to convert basic literals into user literals.
 The backquote is a small character, making the unit (function name) predominate.
 For examples, the multi-precision integer-type in Section~\ref{s:MultiPrecisionIntegers} has user literals:
 …
 y = "12345678901234567890123456789"|`mp| + "12345678901234567890123456789"|`mp|;
 \end{cfa}
 Because \CFA uses a standard function, all types and literals are applicable, as well as overloading and conversions.
+Because \CFA uses a standard function, all types and literals are applicable, as well as overloading and conversions, where @?`@ denotes a postfix-function name and @`@ denotes a postfix-function call.
 }%
+\begin{cquote}
+\lstset{language=CFA,moredelim=**[is][\color{red}]{|}{|},deletedelim=**[is][]{`}{`}}
+\lstDeleteShortInline@%
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{postfix function}}        & \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{constant}}      & \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{variable/expression}}   & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{postfix pointer}}  \\
+\begin{cfa}
+int ?`h( int s );
+int ?`h( double s );
+int ?`m( char c );
+int ?`m( const char * s );
+int ?`t( int a, int b, int c );
+\end{cfa}
+&
+\begin{cfa}
+`h;
+.5`h;
+'1'`m;
+"123" "456"`m;
+[1,2,3]`t;
+\end{cfa}
+&
+\begin{cfa}
+int i = 7;
+i`h;
+(i + 3)`h;
+(i + 3.5)`h;
+\end{cfa}
+&
+\begin{cfa}
+int (* ?`p)( int i );
+?`p = ?`h;
+`p;
+i`p;
+(i + 3)`p;
+\end{cfa}
+\end{tabular}
+\lstMakeShortInline@%
+\end{cquote}
 The right of Figure~\ref{f:UserLiteral} shows the equivalent \CC version using the underscore for the call-syntax.
 …
         return (W){ l.stones + r.stones };
+}
 W |?`st|( double w ) { return (W){ w }; }
 W |?`lb|( double w ) { return (W){ w / 14.0 }; }
 W |?`kg|( double w ) { return (W) { w * 0.16 }; }
+W |?`st|(double w) { return (W){ w }; }
+W |?`lb|(double w) { return (W){ w/14.0 }; }
+W |?`kg|(double w) { return (W){ w*0.16 }; }
 …
 \begin{cfa}
 struct W {
     double stones;
     W() { stones = 0.0; }
     W( double w ) { stones = w; }
+        double stones;
+        W() { stones = 0.0; }
+        W( double w ) { stones = w; }
 };
 W operator+( W l, W r ) {
         return W( l.stones + r.stones );
+}
 W |operator"" _st|( unsigned long long int w ) { return W( w ); }
 W |operator"" _lb|( unsigned long long int w ) { return W( w / 14.0 ); }
 W |operator"" _kg|( unsigned long long int w ) { return W( w * 0.16 ); }
 W |operator"" _st|( long double w ) { return W( w ); }
 W |operator"" _lb|( long double w ) { return W( w / 14.0 ); }
 W |operator"" _kg|( long double w ) { return W( w * 0.16 ); }
+W |operator""_st|(unsigned long long int w) {return W(w); }
+W |operator""_lb|(unsigned long long int w) {return W(w/14.0); }
+W |operator""_kg|(unsigned long long int w) {return W(w*0.16); }
+W |operator""_st|(long double w ) { return W( w ); }
+W |operator""_lb|(long double w ) { return W( w / 14.0 ); }
+W |operator""_kg|(long double w ) { return W( w * 0.16 ); }
 int main() {
         W w, heavy = { 20 };
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{Definition}}       & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{Usage}}    \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{Definition}}      & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{Usage}}    \\
 \begin{cfa}
 const short int `MIN` = -32768;
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
+\lstset{basicstyle=\linespread{0.9}\sf\small}
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{0.5\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{0.5\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}  & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
 \begin{cfa}
 MIN
 MAX
 PI
+E
 …
+&
 \begin{cfa}
+SCHAR_MIN, CHAR_MIN, SHRT_MIN, INT_MIN, LONG_MIN, LLONG_MIN, FLT_MIN, DBL_MIN, LDBL_MIN
+SCHAR_MAX, UCHAR_MAX, SHRT_MAX, INT_MAX, LONG_MAX, LLONG_MAX, FLT_MAX, DBL_MAX, LDBL_MAX
+SCHAR_MIN, CHAR_MIN, SHRT_MIN, INT_MIN, LONG_MIN, LLONG_MIN,
+                FLT_MIN, DBL_MIN, LDBL_MIN
+SCHAR_MAX, UCHAR_MAX, SHRT_MAX, INT_MAX, LONG_MAX, LLONG_MAX,
+                FLT_MAX, DBL_MAX, LDBL_MAX
 M_PI, M_PIl
 M_E, M_El
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{Definition}}       & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{Usage}}    \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{Definition}}      & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{Usage}}    \\
 \begin{cfa}
 float `log`( float x );
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
 \begin{cfa}
 log
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{Definition}}       & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{Usage}}    \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{Definition}}      & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{Usage}}    \\
 \begin{cfa}
 unsigned int `abs`( int );
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
 \begin{cfa}
 abs
 …
 The following shows one example where \CFA \emph{extends} an existing standard C interface to reduce complexity and provide safety.
 C/\Celeven provide a number of complex and overlapping storage-management operation to support the following capabilities:
 \begin{description}[topsep=3pt,itemsep=2pt,parsep=0pt]
+\begin{description}%[topsep=3pt,itemsep=2pt,parsep=0pt]
 \item[fill]
 an allocation with a specified character.
 …
 \end{cfa}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
 \begin{cfa}
 ip = alloc();
 …
 ip = (int *)malloc( sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, dim * sizeof( int ) );
 ip = (int *)realloc( ip, 2 * dim * sizeof( int ) );
 ip = (int *)realloc( ip, 4 * dim * sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, 4 * dim * sizeof( int ) );
+ip = (int *)realloc( ip, 4 * dim * sizeof( int ) );
+                        memset( ip, fill, 4 * dim * sizeof( int ) );
 ip = memalign( 16, sizeof( int ) );
 ip = memalign( 16, sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, sizeof( int ) );
 …
 \begin{cquote}
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{\CC}}      \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{\CC}}      \\
 \begin{cfa}
 int x = 1, y = 2, z = 3;
 …
 The \CFA interface wraps GMP functions into operator functions to make programming with multi-precision integers identical to using fixed-sized integers.
 The \CFA type name for multi-precision signed-integers is @Int@ and the header file is @gmp@.
+The following multi-precision factorial programs contrast using GMP with the \CFA and C interfaces.
+\begin{cquote}
+Figure~\ref{f:GMPInterface} shows a multi-precision factorial-program contrasting the GMP interface in \CFA and C.
+\begin{figure}
+\centering
 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}c}{\textbf{C}}      \\
+\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
+\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}c}{\textbf{C}}     \\
 \begin{cfa}
 #include <gmp>
 …
 \end{tabular}
 \lstMakeShortInline@%
+\end{cquote}
+\caption{GMP Interface \CFA versus C}
+\label{f:GMPInterface}
+\end{figure}
 …
 In fact, \CFA's features for generic programming can enable faster runtime execution than idiomatic @void *@-based C code.
 This claim is demonstrated through a set of generic-code-based micro-benchmarks in C, \CFA, and \CC (see stack implementations in Appendix~\ref{sec:BenchmarkStackImplementation}).
 Since all these languages share a subset essentially comprising standard C, maximal-performance benchmarks would show little runtime variance, other than in length and clarity of source code.
 A more illustrative benchmark measures the costs of idiomatic usage of each language's features.
 Figure~\ref{fig:BenchmarkTest} shows the \CFA benchmark tests for a generic stack based on a singly linked-list, a generic pair-data-structure, and a variadic @print@ function similar to that in Section~\ref{sec:variadic-tuples}.
 The benchmark test is similar for C and \CC.
 The experiment uses element types @int@ and @pair(_Bool, char)@, and pushes $N=40M$ elements on a generic stack, copies the stack, clears one of the stacks, finds the maximum value in the other stack, and prints $N/2$ (to reduce graph height) constants.
+Since all these languages share a subset essentially comprising standard C, maximal-performance benchmarks should show little runtime variance, differing only in length and clarity of source code.
+A more illustrative comparison measures the costs of idiomatic usage of each language's features.
+Figure~\ref{fig:BenchmarkTest} shows the \CFA benchmark tests for a generic stack based on a singly linked-list.
+The benchmark test is similar for the other languages.
+The experiment uses element types @int@ and @pair(short, char)@, and pushes $N=40M$ elements on a generic stack, copies the stack, clears one of the stacks, and finds the maximum value in the other stack.
 \begin{figure}
 \begin{cfa}[xleftmargin=3\parindentlnth,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
 int main( int argc, char * argv[] ) {
+int main() {
         int max = 0, val = 42;
         stack( int ) si, ti;
         REPEAT_TIMED( "push_int", N, push( si, val ); )
         TIMED( "copy_int", ti = si; )
+        TIMED( "copy_int", ti{ si }; )
         TIMED( "clear_int", clear( si ); )
         REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_int", N, int x = pop( ti ); if ( x > max ) max = x; )
         pair( _Bool, char ) max = { (_Bool)0, '\0' }, val = { (_Bool)1, 'a' };
         stack( pair( _Bool, char ) ) sp, tp;
+        pair( short, char ) max = { 0h, '\0' }, val = { 42h, 'a' };
+        stack( pair( short, char ) ) sp, tp;
         REPEAT_TIMED( "push_pair", N, push( sp, val ); )
         TIMED( "copy_pair", tp = sp; )
+        TIMED( "copy_pair", tp{ sp }; )
         TIMED( "clear_pair", clear( sp ); )
         REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_pair", N, pair(_Bool, char) x = pop( tp ); if ( x > max ) max = x; )
+        REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_pair", N, pair(short, char) x = pop( tp ); if ( x > max ) max = x; )
+}
 \end{cfa}
 …
 hence runtime checks are necessary to safely down-cast objects.
 The most notable difference among the implementations is in memory layout of generic types: \CFA and \CC inline the stack and pair elements into corresponding list and pair nodes, while C and \CCV lack such a capability and instead must store generic objects via pointers to separately-allocated objects.
+For the print benchmark, idiomatic printing is used: the C and \CFA variants used @stdio.h@, while the \CC and \CCV variants used @iostream@; preliminary tests show this distinction has negligible runtime impact.
+Note, the C benchmark uses unchecked casts as there is no runtime mechanism to perform such checks, while \CFA and \CC provide type-safety statically.
+Note that the C benchmark uses unchecked casts as there is no runtime mechanism to perform such checks, while \CFA and \CC provide type-safety statically.
 Figure~\ref{fig:eval} and Table~\ref{tab:eval} show the results of running the benchmark in Figure~\ref{fig:BenchmarkTest} and its C, \CC, and \CCV equivalents.
 The graph plots the median of 5 consecutive runs of each program, with an initial warm-up run omitted.
 All code is compiled at \texttt{-O2} by gcc or g++ 6.2.0, with all \CC code compiled as \CCfourteen.
+All code is compiled at \texttt{-O2} by gcc or g++ 6.3.0, with all \CC code compiled as \CCfourteen.
 The benchmarks are run on an Ubuntu 16.04 workstation with 16 GB of RAM and a 6-core AMD FX-6300 CPU with 3.5 GHz maximum clock frequency.
 …
 \begin{tabular}{rrrrr}
                                                                         & \CT{C}        & \CT{\CFA}     & \CT{\CC}      & \CT{\CCV}             \\ \hline
 maximum memory usage (MB)                       & 10001         & 2502          & 2503          & 11253                 \\
 source code size (lines)                        & 247           & 222           & 165           & 339                   \\
 redundant type annotations (lines)      & 39            & 2                     & 2                     & 15                    \\
 binary size (KB)                                        & 14            & 229           & 18            & 38                    \\
+maximum memory usage (MB)                       & 10,001        & 2,502         & 2,503         & 11,253                \\
+source code size (lines)                        & 196           & 186           & 125           & 290                   \\
+redundant type annotations (lines)      & 27            & 0                     & 2                     & 16                    \\
+binary size (KB)                                        & 14            & 257           & 14            & 37                    \\
 \end{tabular}
 \end{table}
 The C and \CCV variants are generally the slowest with the largest memory footprint, because of their less-efficient memory layout and the pointer-indirection necessary to implement generic types;
 this inefficiency is exacerbated by the second level of generic types in the pair-based benchmarks.
 By contrast, the \CFA and \CC variants run in roughly equivalent time for both the integer and pair of @_Bool@ and @char@ because the storage layout is equivalent, with the inlined libraries (\ie no separate compilation) and greater maturity of the \CC compiler contributing to its lead.
+this inefficiency is exacerbated by the second level of generic types in the pair benchmarks.
+By contrast, the \CFA and \CC variants run in roughly equivalent time for both the integer and pair of @short@ and @char@ because the storage layout is equivalent, with the inlined libraries (\ie no separate compilation) and greater maturity of the \CC compiler contributing to its lead.
 \CCV is slower than C largely due to the cost of runtime type-checking of down-casts (implemented with @dynamic_cast@);
+There are two outliers in the graph for \CFA: all prints and pop of @pair@.
+Both of these cases result from the complexity of the C-generated polymorphic code, so that the gcc compiler is unable to optimize some dead code and condense nested calls.
+A compiler designed for \CFA could easily perform these optimizations.
+The outlier in the graph for \CFA, pop @pair@, results from the complexity of the generated-C polymorphic code.
+The gcc compiler is unable to optimize some dead code and condense nested calls; a compiler designed for \CFA could easily perform these optimizations.
 Finally, the binary size for \CFA is larger because of static linking with the \CFA libraries.
+\CFA is also competitive in terms of source code size, measured as a proxy for programmer effort. The line counts in Table~\ref{tab:eval} include implementations of @pair@ and @stack@ types for all four languages for purposes of direct comparison, though it should be noted that \CFA and \CC have pre-written data structures in their standard libraries that programmers would generally use instead. Use of these standard library types has minimal impact on the performance benchmarks, but shrinks the \CFA and \CC benchmarks to 73 and 54 lines, respectively.
+\CFA is also competitive in terms of source code size, measured as a proxy for programmer effort. The line counts in Table~\ref{tab:eval} include implementations of @pair@ and @stack@ types for all four languages for purposes of direct comparison, though it should be noted that \CFA and \CC have pre-written data structures in their standard libraries that programmers would generally use instead. Use of these standard library types has minimal impact on the performance benchmarks, but shrinks the \CFA and \CC benchmarks to 39 and 42 lines, respectively.
+The difference between the \CFA and \CC line counts is primarily declaration duplication to implement separate compilation; a header-only \CFA library would be similar in length to the \CC version.
 On the other hand, C does not have a generic collections-library in its standard distribution, resulting in frequent reimplementation of such collection types by C programmers.
 \CCV does not use the \CC standard template library by construction, and in fact includes the definition of @object@ and wrapper classes for @bool@, @char@, @int@, and @const char *@ in its line count, which inflates this count somewhat, as an actual object-oriented language would include these in the standard library;
+\CCV does not use the \CC standard template library by construction, and in fact includes the definition of @object@ and wrapper classes for @char@, @short@, and @int@ in its line count, which inflates this count somewhat, as an actual object-oriented language would include these in the standard library;
 with their omission, the \CCV line count is similar to C.
 We justify the given line count by noting that many object-oriented languages do not allow implementing new interfaces on library types without subclassing or wrapper types, which may be similarly verbose.
 Raw line-count, however, is a fairly rough measure of code complexity;
 another important factor is how much type information the programmer must manually specify, especially where that information is not checked by the compiler.
 Such unchecked type information produces a heavier documentation burden and increased potential for runtime bugs, and is much less common in \CFA than C, with its manually specified function pointers arguments and format codes, or \CCV, with its extensive use of un-type-checked downcasts (\eg @object@ to @integer@ when popping a stack, or @object@ to @printable@ when printing the elements of a @pair@).
 To quantify this, the ``redundant type annotations'' line in Table~\ref{tab:eval} counts the number of lines on which the type of a known variable is re-specified, either as a format specifier, explicit downcast, type-specific function, or by name in a @sizeof@, struct literal, or @new@ expression.
+Line-count is a fairly rough measure of code complexity;
+another important factor is how much type information the programmer must specify manually, especially where that information is not compiler-checked.
+Such unchecked type information produces a heavier documentation burden and increased potential for runtime bugs, and is much less common in \CFA than C, with its manually specified function pointer arguments and format codes, or \CCV, with its extensive use of untype-checked downcasts, \eg @object@ to @integer@ when popping a stack.
+To quantify this manual typing, the ``redundant type annotations'' line in Table~\ref{tab:eval} counts the number of lines on which the type of a known variable is respecified, either as a format specifier, explicit downcast, type-specific function, or by name in a @sizeof@, struct literal, or @new@ expression.
 The \CC benchmark uses two redundant type annotations to create a new stack nodes, while the C and \CCV benchmarks have several such annotations spread throughout their code.
+The two instances in which the \CFA benchmark still uses redundant type specifiers are to cast the result of a polymorphic @malloc@ call (the @sizeof@ argument is inferred by the compiler).
+These uses are similar to the @new@ expressions in \CC, though the \CFA compiler's type resolver should shortly render even these type casts superfluous.
+The \CFA benchmark is able to eliminate all redundant type annotations through use of the polymorphic @alloc@ function discussed in Section~\ref{sec:libraries}.
 …
 \subsection{Polymorphism}
+\CC is the most similar language to \CFA;
+both are extensions to C with source and runtime backwards compatibility.
+The fundamental difference is the engineering approach to maintain C compatibility and programmer expectation.
+While \CC provides good compatibility with C, it has a steep learning curve for many of its extensions.
+For example, polymorphism is provided via three disjoint mechanisms: overloading, inheritance, and templates.
+\CC provides three disjoint polymorphic extensions to C: overloading, inheritance, and templates.
 The overloading is restricted because resolution does not use the return type, inheritance requires learning object-oriented programming and coping with a restricted nominal-inheritance hierarchy, templates cannot be separately compiled resulting in compilation/code bloat and poor error messages, and determining how these mechanisms interact and which to use is confusing.
 In contrast, \CFA has a single facility for polymorphic code supporting type-safe separate-compilation of polymorphic functions and generic (opaque) types, which uniformly leverage the C procedural paradigm.
 …
+\subsection{C Extensions}
+\CC is the best known C-based language, and is similar to \CFA in that both are extensions to C with source and runtime backwards compatibility.
+Specific difference between \CFA and \CC have been identified in prior sections, with a final observation that \CFA has equal or fewer tokens to express the same notion in many cases.
+The key difference in design philosophies is that \CFA is easier for C programmers to understand by maintaining a procedural paradigm and avoiding complex interactions among extensions.
+\CC, on the other hand, has multiple overlapping features (such as the three forms of polymorphism), many of which have complex interactions with its object-oriented design.
+As a result, \CC has a steep learning curve for even experienced C programmers, especially when attempting to maintain performance equivalent to C legacy-code.
+There are several other C extension-languages with less usage and even more dramatic changes than \CC.
+Objective-C and Cyclone are two other extensions to C with different design goals than \CFA, as discussed above.
+Other languages extend C with more focused features.
+$\mu$\CC~\cite{uC++book}, CUDA~\cite{Nickolls08}, ispc~\cite{Pharr12}, and Sierra~\cite{Leissa14} add concurrent or data-parallel primitives to C or \CC;
+data-parallel features have not yet been added to \CFA, but are easily incorporated within its design, while concurrency primitives similar to those in $\mu$\CC have already been added~\cite{Delisle18}.
+Finally, CCured~\cite{Necula02} and Ironclad \CC~\cite{DeLozier13} attempt to provide a more memory-safe C by annotating pointer types with garbage collection information; type-checked polymorphism in \CFA covers several of C's memory-safety issues, but more aggressive approaches such as annotating all pointer types with their nullability or requiring runtime garbage collection are contradictory to \CFA's backwards compatibility goals.
+\begin{comment}
 \subsection{Control Structures / Declarations / Literals}
 …
 /1 Literals \\
 user defined: D, Objective-C
+\end{comment}
 …
 Finally, we demonstrate that \CFA performance for some idiomatic cases is better than C and close to \CC, showing the design is practically applicable.
 There is ongoing work on a wide range of \CFA feature extensions, including arrays with size, runtime type-information, virtual functions, user-defined conversions, concurrent primitives, and modules.
+(While all examples in the paper compile and run, a public beta-release of \CFA will take another 8--12 months to finalize these additional extensions.)
 In addition, there are interesting future directions for the polymorphism design.
+There is ongoing work on a wide range of \CFA features, including arrays with size, runtime type-information, virtual functions, user-defined conversions, concurrent primitives, and modules.
+While all examples in the paper compile and run, a public beta-release of \CFA will take another 8--12 months to finalize these extensions.
+There are also interesting future directions for the polymorphism design.
 Notably, \CC template functions trade compile time and code bloat for optimal runtime of individual instantiations of polymorphic functions.
 \CFA polymorphic functions use dynamic virtual-dispatch;
 …
 \section{Acknowledgments}
+The authors would like to recognize the design assistance of Glen Ditchfield, Richard Bilson, Thierry Delisle, and Andrew Beach on the features described in this paper, and thank Magnus Madsen for feedback in the writing.
+This work is supported through a corporate partnership with Huawei Ltd.\ (\url{http://www.huawei.com}), and Aaron Moss and Peter Buhr are partially funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
+% the first author's \grantsponsor{NSERC-PGS}{NSERC PGS D}{http://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/Students-Etudiants/PG-CS/BellandPostgrad-BelletSuperieures_eng.asp} scholarship.
+\bibliographystyle{plain}
+The authors would like to recognize the design assistance of Glen Ditchfield, Richard Bilson, Thierry Delisle, Andrew Beach and Brice Dobry on the features described in this paper, and thank Magnus Madsen for feedback on the writing.
+This work is supported by a corporate partnership with Huawei Ltd.\ (\url{http://www.huawei.com}), and Aaron Moss and Peter Buhr are partially funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
 \bibliography{pl}
 …
 \label{sec:BenchmarkStackImplementation}
+\lstset{basicstyle=\linespread{0.9}\sf\small}
+Throughout, @/***/@ designates a counted redundant type annotation.
+Throughout, @/***/@ designates a counted redundant type annotation; code reformatted for brevity.
 \smallskip\noindent
+C
+\begin{cfa}[xleftmargin=2\parindentlnth,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
+struct stack_node {
+        void * value;
+        struct stack_node * next;
+};
+struct stack { struct stack_node* head; };
+void clear_stack( struct stack * s, void (*free_el)( void * ) ) {
+        for ( struct stack_node * next = s->head; next; ) {
+                struct stack_node * crnt = next;
+                next = crnt->next;
+                free_el( crnt->value );
+                free( crnt );
+        }
+        s->head = NULL;
+}
+struct stack new_stack() { return (struct stack){ NULL }; /***/ }
+void copy_stack( struct stack * s, const struct stack * t, void * (*copy)( const void * ) ) {
+        struct stack_node ** crnt = &s->head;
+        for ( struct stack_node * next = t->head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                *crnt = malloc( sizeof(struct stack_node) ); /***/
+                (*crnt)->value = copy( next->value );
+                crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+        }
+        *crnt = NULL;
+}
+struct stack * assign_stack( struct stack * s, const struct stack * t,
+                void * (*copy_el)( const void * ), void (*free_el)( void * ) ) {
+        if ( s->head == t->head ) return s;
+        clear_stack( s, free_el ); /***/
+        copy_stack( s, t, copy_el ); /***/
+        return s;
+}
+_Bool stack_empty( const struct stack * s ) { return s->head == NULL; }
+void push_stack( struct stack * s, void * v ) {
+        struct stack_node * n = malloc( sizeof(struct stack_node) ); /***/
+        *n = (struct stack_node){ v, s->head }; /***/
+        s->head = n;
+}
+void * pop_stack( struct stack * s ) {
+        struct stack_node * n = s->head;
+        s->head = n->next;
+        void * v = n->value;
+        free( n );
+        return v;
+}
+\end{cfa}
+\medskip\noindent
 \CFA
 \begin{cfa}[xleftmargin=2\parindentlnth,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
-forall( otype T ) struct stack_node;
-forall( otype T ) struct stack {
-        stack_node(T) * head;
-};
 forall( otype T ) struct stack_node {
         T value;
         stack_node(T) * next;
 };
+forall( otype T) void ?{}( stack(T) & s ) { (s.head){ 0 }; }
+forall( otype T) void ?{}( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t ) {
+forall( otype T ) struct stack { stack_node(T) * head; };
+forall( otype T ) void clear( stack(T) & s ) with( s ) {
+        for ( stack_node(T) * next = head; next; ) {
+                stack_node(T) * crnt = next;
+                next = crnt->next;
+                ^(*crnt){};
+                free(crnt);
+        }
+        head = 0;
+}
+forall( otype T ) void ?{}( stack(T) & s ) { (s.head){ 0 }; }
+forall( otype T ) void ?{}( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t ) {
         stack_node(T) ** crnt = &s.head;
         for ( stack_node(T) * next = t.head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                stack_node(T) * new_node = ((stack_node(T)*)malloc());
+                (*new_node){ next->value }; /***/
+                *crnt = new_node;
+                stack_node(T) * acrnt = *crnt;
+                crnt = &acrnt->next;
+                *crnt = alloc();
+                ((*crnt)->value){ next->value };
+                crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+        }
         *crnt = 0;
 …
 forall( otype T ) void ^?{}( stack(T) & s) { clear( s ); }
 forall( otype T ) _Bool empty( const stack(T) & s ) { return s.head == 0; }
 forall( otype T ) void push( stack(T) & s, T value ) {
         stack_node(T) * new_node = ((stack_node(T)*)malloc());
         (*new_node){ value, s.head }; /***/
         s.head = new_node;
+}
 forall( otype T ) T pop( stack(T) & s ) {
         stack_node(T) * n = s.head;
         s.head = n->next;
+forall( otype T ) void push( stack(T) & s, T value ) with( s ) {
+        stack_node(T) * n = alloc();
+        (*n){ value, head };
+        head = n;
+}
+forall( otype T ) T pop( stack(T) & s ) with( s ) {
+        stack_node(T) * n = head;
+        head = n->next;
         T v = n->value;
+        delete( n );
+        ^(*n){};
+        free( n );
         return v;
+}
+forall( otype T ) void clear( stack(T) & s ) {
+        for ( stack_node(T) * next = s.head; next; ) {
+                stack_node(T) * crnt = next;
+                next = crnt->next;
+                delete( crnt );
+\end{cfa}
+\begin{comment}
+forall( otype T ) {
+        struct stack_node {
+                T value;
+                stack_node(T) * next;
+        };
+        struct stack { stack_node(T) * head; };
+        void clear( stack(T) & s ) with( s ) {
+                for ( stack_node(T) * next = head; next; ) {
+                        stack_node(T) * crnt = next;
+                        next = crnt->next;
+                        ^(*crnt){};
+                        free(crnt);
+                }
+                head = 0;
+        }
+        s.head = 0;
+}
+\end{cfa}
+        void ?{}( stack(T) & s ) { (s.head){ 0 }; }
+        void ?{}( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t ) {
+                stack_node(T) ** crnt = &s.head;
+                for ( stack_node(T) * next = t.head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                        *crnt = alloc();
+                        ((*crnt)->value){ next->value };
+                        crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+                }
+                *crnt = 0;
+        }
+        stack(T) ?=?( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t ) {
+                if ( s.head == t.head ) return s;
+                clear( s );
+                s{ t };
+                return s;
+        }
+        void ^?{}( stack(T) & s) { clear( s ); }
+        _Bool empty( const stack(T) & s ) { return s.head == 0; }
+        void push( stack(T) & s, T value ) with( s ) {
+                stack_node(T) * n = alloc();
+                (*n){ value, head };
+                head = n;
+        }
+        T pop( stack(T) & s ) with( s ) {
+                stack_node(T) * n = head;
+                head = n->next;
+                T v = n->value;
+                ^(*n){};
+                free( n );
+                return v;
+        }
+}
+\end{comment}
 \medskip\noindent
 \CC
 \begin{cfa}[xleftmargin=2\parindentlnth,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
 template<typename T> class stack {
+template<typename T> struct stack {
         struct node {
                 T value;
                 node * next;
                 node( const T & v, node * n = nullptr ) : value(v), next(n) {}
+                node( const T & v, node * n = nullptr ) : value( v ), next( n ) {}
         };
         node * head;
+        void copy(const stack<T>& o) {
+                node ** crnt = &head;
+                for ( node * next = o.head;; next; next = next->next ) {
+                        *crnt = new node{ next->value }; /***/
+                        crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+                }
+                *crnt = nullptr;
+        }
+  public:
+        stack() : head(nullptr) {}
+        stack(const stack<T>& o) { copy(o); }
+        stack(stack<T> && o) : head(o.head) { o.head = nullptr; }
+        ~stack() { clear(); }
+        stack & operator= (const stack<T>& o) {
+                if ( this == &o ) return *this;
+                clear();
+                copy(o);
+                return *this;
+        }
+        stack & operator= (stack<T> && o) {
+                if ( this == &o ) return *this;
+                head = o.head;
+                o.head = nullptr;
+                return *this;
+        }
+        bool empty() const { return head == nullptr; }
+        void push(const T & value) { head = new node{ value, head };  /***/ }
+        T pop() {
+                node * n = head;
+                head = n->next;
+                T x = std::move(n->value);
+                delete n;
+                return x;
+        }
+        stack() : head( nullptr ) {}
+        stack( const stack<T> & o ) { copy( o ); }
         void clear() {
                 for ( node * next = head; next; ) {
 …
                 head = nullptr;
+        }
+        void copy( const stack<T> & o ) {
+                node ** crnt = &head;
+                for ( node * next = o.head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                        *crnt = new node{ next->value }; /***/
+                        crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+                }
+                *crnt = nullptr;
+        }
+        ~stack() { clear(); }
+        stack & operator= ( const stack<T> & o ) {
+                if ( this == &o ) return *this;
+                clear();
+                copy( o );
+                return *this;
+        }
+        bool empty() const { return head == nullptr; }
+        void push( const T & value ) { head = new node{ value, head };  /***/ }
+        T pop() {
+                node * n = head;
+                head = n->next;
+                T v = std::move( n->value );
+                delete n;
+                return v;
+        }
 };
-\end{cfa}
-\medskip\noindent
+C
-\begin{cfa}[xleftmargin=2\parindentlnth,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
-struct stack_node {
-        void * value;
-        struct stack_node * next;
-};
-struct stack new_stack() { return (struct stack){ NULL }; /***/ }
-void copy_stack(struct stack * s, const struct stack * t, void * (*copy)(const void *)) {
-        struct stack_node ** crnt = &s->head;
-        for ( struct stack_node * next = t->head; next; next = next->next ) {
-                *crnt = malloc(sizeof(struct stack_node)); /***/
-                **crnt = (struct stack_node){ copy(next->value) }; /***/
-                crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+        }
-        *crnt = 0;
+}
-_Bool stack_empty(const struct stack * s) { return s->head == NULL; }
-void push_stack(struct stack * s, void * value) {
-        struct stack_node * n = malloc(sizeof(struct stack_node)); /***/
-        *n = (struct stack_node){ value, s->head }; /***/
-        s->head = n;
+}
-void * pop_stack(struct stack * s) {
-        struct stack_node * n = s->head;
-        s->head = n->next;
-        void * x = n->value;
-        free(n);
-        return x;
+}
-void clear_stack(struct stack * s, void (*free_el)(void *)) {
-        for ( struct stack_node * next = s->head; next; ) {
-                struct stack_node * crnt = next;
-                next = crnt->next;
-                free_el(crnt->value);
-                free(crnt);
+        }
-        s->head = NULL;
+}
 \end{cfa}
 …
 \CCV
 \begin{cfa}[xleftmargin=2\parindentlnth,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
+stack::node::node( const object & v, node * n ) : value( v.new_copy() ), next( n ) {}
+void stack::copy(const stack & o) {
+        node ** crnt = &head;
+        for ( node * next = o.head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                *crnt = new node{ *next->value };
+                crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+struct stack {
+        struct node {
+                ptr<object> value;
+                node * next;
+                node( const object & v, node * n = nullptr ) : value( v.new_copy() ), next( n ) {}
+        };
+        node * head;
+        void clear() {
+                for ( node * next = head; next; ) {
+                        node * crnt = next;
+                        next = crnt->next;
+                        delete crnt;
+                }
+                head = nullptr;
+        }
+        *crnt = nullptr;
+}
+stack::stack() : head(nullptr) {}
+stack::stack(const stack & o) { copy(o); }
+stack::stack(stack && o) : head(o.head) { o.head = nullptr; }
+stack::~stack() { clear(); }
+stack & stack::operator= (const stack & o) {
+        if ( this == &o ) return *this;
+        clear();
+        copy(o);
+        return *this;
+}
+stack & stack::operator= (stack && o) {
+        if ( this == &o ) return *this;
+        head = o.head;
+        o.head = nullptr;
+        return *this;
+}
+bool stack::empty() const { return head == nullptr; }
+void stack::push(const object & value) { head = new node{ value, head }; /***/ }
+ptr<object> stack::pop() {
+        node * n = head;
+        head = n->next;
+        ptr<object> x = std::move(n->value);
+        delete n;
+        return x;
+}
+void stack::clear() {
+        for ( node * next = head; next; ) {
+                node * crnt = next;
+                next = crnt->next;
+                delete crnt;
+        void copy( const stack & o ) {
+                node ** crnt = &head;
+                for ( node * next = o.head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                        *crnt = new node{ *next->value }; /***/
+                        crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+                }
+                *crnt = nullptr;
+        }
+        head = nullptr;
+}
+        stack() : head( nullptr ) {}
+        stack( const stack & o ) { copy( o ); }
+        ~stack() { clear(); }
+        stack & operator= ( const stack & o ) {
+                if ( this == &o ) return *this;
+                clear();
+                copy( o );
+                return *this;
+        }
+        bool empty() const { return head == nullptr; }
+        void push( const object & value ) { head = new node{ value, head }; /***/ }
+        ptr<object> pop() {
+                node * n = head;
+                head = n->next;
+                ptr<object> v = std::move( n->value );
+                delete n;
+                return v;
+        }
+};
 \end{cfa}

doc/papers/general/evaluation/c-bench.c

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 #include "c-stack.h"
 _Bool* new_bool( _Bool b ) {
         _Bool* q = malloc(sizeof(_Bool)); /***/
         *q = b;
+char* new_char( char c ) {
+        char* q = malloc(sizeof(char)); /***/
+        *q = c;
         return q;
+}
 char* new_char( char c ) {
         char* q = malloc(sizeof(char)); /***/
         *q = c;
+short* new_short( short s ) {
+        short* q = malloc(sizeof(short)); /***/
+        *q = s;
         return q;
+}
 …
+}
-void* copy_bool( const void* p ) { return new_bool( *(const _Bool*)p ); } /***/
 void* copy_char( const void* p ) { return new_char( *(const char*)p ); } /***/
+void* copy_short( const void* p ) { return new_short( *(const short*)p ); } /***/
 void* copy_int( const void* p ) { return new_int( *(const int*)p ); } /***/
+void* copy_pair_bool_char( const void* p ) { return copy_pair( p, copy_bool, copy_char ); } /***/
+void free_pair_bool_char( void* p ) { free_pair( p, free, free ); } /***/
+int cmp_bool( const void* a, const void* b ) { /***/
+        return *(const _Bool*)a == *(const _Bool*)b ? 0 : *(const _Bool*)a < *(const _Bool*)b ? -1 : 1;
+}
+void* copy_pair_short_char( const void* p ) { return copy_pair( p, copy_short, copy_char ); } /***/
+void free_pair_short_char( void* p ) { free_pair( p, free, free ); } /***/
 int cmp_char( const void* a, const void* b ) { /***/
         return *(const char*)a == *(const char*)b ? 0 : *(const char*)a < *(const char*)b ? -1 : 1;
+}
+int cmp_short( const void* a, const void* b ) { /***/
+        return *(const short*)a == *(const short*)b ? 0 : *(const short*)a < *(const short*)b ? -1 : 1;
+}
 …
                 free(xi); )
         struct pair * maxp = new_pair( new_bool(0), new_char('\0') ),
                 * valp = new_pair( new_bool(1), new_char('a') );
+        struct pair * maxp = new_pair( new_short(0), new_char('\0') ),
+                * valp = new_pair( new_short(42), new_char('a') );
         struct stack sp = new_stack(), tp;
         REPEAT_TIMED( "push_pair", N, push_stack( &sp, copy_pair_bool_char( valp ) ); )
         TIMED( "copy_pair", copy_stack( &tp, &sp, copy_pair_bool_char ); /***/ )
         TIMED( "clear_pair", clear_stack( &sp, free_pair_bool_char ); /***/ )
+        REPEAT_TIMED( "push_pair", N, push_stack( &sp, copy_pair_short_char( valp ) ); )
+        TIMED( "copy_pair", copy_stack( &tp, &sp, copy_pair_short_char ); /***/ )
+        TIMED( "clear_pair", clear_stack( &sp, free_pair_short_char ); /***/ )
         REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_pair", N,
                 struct pair * xp = pop_stack( &tp );
                 if ( cmp_pair( xp, maxp, cmp_bool, cmp_char /***/ ) > 0 ) {
                         free_pair_bool_char( maxp ); /***/
+                if ( cmp_pair( xp, maxp, cmp_short, cmp_char /***/ ) > 0 ) {
+                        free_pair_short_char( maxp ); /***/
                         maxp = xp;
                 } else {
                         free_pair_bool_char( xp ); /***/
+                        free_pair_short_char( xp ); /***/
                 } )
         free_pair_bool_char( maxp ); /***/
         free_pair_bool_char( valp ); /***/
+        free_pair_short_char( maxp ); /***/
+        free_pair_short_char( valp ); /***/
+}

doc/papers/general/evaluation/c-stack.c

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 struct stack_node {
         void* value;
         struct stack_node* next;
+        void * value;
+        struct stack_node * next;
 };
+struct stack new_stack() { return (struct stack){ NULL }; /***/ }
+void copy_stack(struct stack* s, const struct stack* t, void* (*copy)(const void*)) {
+        struct stack_node** crnt = &s->head;
+        for ( struct stack_node* next = t->head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                *crnt = malloc(sizeof(struct stack_node)); /***/
+                **crnt = (struct stack_node){ copy(next->value) }; /***/
+                crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+        }
+        *crnt = 0;
+}
+void clear_stack(struct stack* s, void (*free_el)(void*)) {
+    for ( struct stack_node* next = s->head; next; ) {
+                struct stack_node* crnt = next;
+void clear_stack( struct stack * s, void (*free_el)( void * ) ) {
+        for ( struct stack_node * next = s->head; next; ) {
+                struct stack_node * crnt = next;
                 next = crnt->next;
                 free_el(crnt->value);
                 free(crnt);
+                free_el( crnt->value );
+                free( crnt );
+        }
         s->head = NULL;
+}
 _Bool stack_empty(const struct stack* s) { return s->head == NULL; }
+struct stack new_stack() { return (struct stack){ NULL }; /***/ }
+void push_stack(struct stack* s, void* value) {
+        struct stack_node* n = malloc(sizeof(struct stack_node)); /***/
+        *n = (struct stack_node){ value, s->head }; /***/
+void copy_stack( struct stack * s, const struct stack * t, void * (*copy)( const void * ) ) {
+        struct stack_node ** crnt = &s->head;
+        for ( struct stack_node * next = t->head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                *crnt = malloc( sizeof(struct stack_node) ); /***/
+                (*crnt)->value = copy( next->value );
+                crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+        }
+        *crnt = NULL;
+}
+struct stack * assign_stack( struct stack * s, const struct stack * t,
+                void * (*copy_el)( const void * ), void (*free_el)( void * ) ) {
+        if ( s->head == t->head ) return s;
+        clear_stack( s, free_el ); /***/
+        copy_stack( s, t, copy_el ); /***/
+        return s;
+}
+_Bool stack_empty( const struct stack * s ) { return s->head == NULL; }
+void push_stack( struct stack * s, void * v ) {
+        struct stack_node * n = malloc( sizeof(struct stack_node) ); /***/
+        *n = (struct stack_node){ v, s->head }; /***/
         s->head = n;
+}
 void* pop_stack(struct stack* s) {
         struct stack_node* n = s->head;
+void * pop_stack( struct stack * s ) {
+        struct stack_node * n = s->head;
         s->head = n->next;
         void* x = n->value;
         free(n);
         return x;
+        void * v = n->value;
+        free( n );
+        return v;
+}

doc/papers/general/evaluation/c-stack.h

rb2fe1c9	r32cab5b
8	8	struct stack new_stack();
9	9	void copy_stack(struct stack* dst, const struct stack* src, void* (copy)(const void));
	10	struct stack* assign_stack(struct stack* dst, const struct stack* src,
	11	void* (copy_el)(const void), void (free_el)(void));
10	12	void clear_stack(struct stack* s, void (free_el)(void));
11	13

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cfa-bench.c

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 #include "cfa-pair.h"
 int main( int argc, char * argv[] ) {
+int main() {
         int max = 0, val = 42;
         stack( int ) si, ti;
         REPEAT_TIMED( "push_int", N, push( si, val ); )
         TIMED( "copy_int", ti = si; )
+        TIMED( "copy_int", ti{ si }; )
         TIMED( "clear_int", clear( si ); )
+        REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_int", N,
+                int x = pop( ti ); if ( x > max ) max = x; )
+        REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_int", N, int x = pop( ti ); if ( x > max ) max = x; )
         pair( _Bool, char ) max = { (_Bool)0 /***/, '\0' }, val = { (_Bool)1 /***/, 'a' };
         stack( pair( _Bool, char ) ) sp, tp;
+        pair( short, char ) max = { 0h, '\0' }, val = { 42h, 'a' };
+        stack( pair( short, char ) ) sp, tp;
         REPEAT_TIMED( "push_pair", N, push( sp, val ); )
         TIMED( "copy_pair", tp = sp; )
+        TIMED( "copy_pair", tp{ sp }; )
         TIMED( "clear_pair", clear( sp ); )
+        REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_pair", N,
+                pair(_Bool, char) x = pop( tp ); if ( x > max ) max = x; )
+        REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_pair", N, pair(short, char) x = pop( tp ); if ( x > max ) max = x; )
+}

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cfa-stack.c

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 #include "cfa-stack.h"
 forall(otype T) struct stack_node {
+forall( otype T ) struct stack_node {
         T value;
         stack_node(T) * next;
 };
+forall(otype T) void ?{}( stack(T) & s ) { (s.head){ 0 }; }
+forall( otype T ) void clear( stack(T) & s ) with( s ) {
+        for ( stack_node(T) * next = head; next; ) {
+                stack_node(T) * crnt = next;
+                next = crnt->next;
+                ^(*crnt){};
+                free(crnt);
+        }
+        head = 0;
+}
+forall(otype T) void ?{}( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t ) {
+forall( otype T ) void ?{}( stack(T) & s ) { (s.head){ 0 }; }
+forall( otype T ) void ?{}( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t ) {
         stack_node(T) ** crnt = &s.head;
         for ( stack_node(T) * next = t.head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                stack_node(T)* new_node = (stack_node(T)*)malloc(); /***/
+                (*new_node){ next->value };
+                *crnt = new_node;
+                *crnt = alloc();
+                ((*crnt)->value){ next->value };
                 crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+        }
 …
+}
 forall(otype T) stack(T) ?=?( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t ) {
+forall( otype T ) stack(T) ?=?( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t ) {
         if ( s.head == t.head ) return s;
         clear( s );
 …
+}
 forall(otype T) void ^?{}( stack(T) & s) { clear( s ); }
+forall( otype T ) void ^?{}( stack(T) & s) { clear( s ); }
 forall(otype T) _Bool empty( const stack(T) & s ) { return s.head == 0; }
+forall( otype T ) _Bool empty( const stack(T) & s ) { return s.head == 0; }
 forall(otype T) void push( stack(T) & s, T value ) {
         stack_node(T)* new_node = (stack_node(T)*)malloc(); /***/
         (*new_node){ value, s.head };
         s.head = new_node;
+forall( otype T ) void push( stack(T) & s, T value ) with( s ) {
+        stack_node(T) * n = alloc();
+        (*n){ value, head };
+        head = n;
+}
 forall(otype T) T pop( stack(T) & s ) {
         stack_node(T) * n = s.head;
         s.head = n->next;
+forall( otype T ) T pop( stack(T) & s ) with( s ) {
+        stack_node(T) * n = head;
+        head = n->next;
         T v = n->value;
         ^(*n){};
 …
         return v;
+}
-forall(otype T) void clear( stack(T) & s ) {
-        for ( stack_node(T) * next = s.head; next; ) {
-                stack_node(T) * crnt = next;
-                next = crnt->next;
-                ^(*crnt){};
-                free(crnt);
+        }
-        s.head = 0;
+}

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cfa-stack.h

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 #pragma once
 forall(otype T) struct stack_node;
 forall(otype T) struct stack {
+forall( otype T ) struct stack_node;
+forall( otype T ) struct stack {
         stack_node(T) * head;
 };
 forall(otype T) void ?{}( stack(T) & s );
 forall(otype T) void ?{}( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t );
 forall(otype T) stack(T) ?=?( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t );
 forall(otype T) void ^?{}( stack(T) & s);
+forall( otype T ) void ?{}( stack(T) & s );
+forall( otype T ) void ?{}( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t );
+forall( otype T ) stack(T) ?=?( stack(T) & s, stack(T) t );
+forall( otype T ) void ^?{}( stack(T) & s);
 forall(otype T) _Bool empty( const stack(T) & s );
 forall(otype T) void push( stack(T) & s, T value );
 forall(otype T) T pop( stack(T) & s );
 forall(otype T) void clear( stack(T) & s );
+forall( otype T ) _Bool empty( const stack(T) & s );
+forall( otype T ) void push( stack(T) & s, T value );
+forall( otype T ) T pop( stack(T) & s );
+forall( otype T ) void clear( stack(T) & s );

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cpp-bench.cpp

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
         REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_int", N, maxi = std::max( maxi, ti.pop() ); )
         pair<bool, char> maxp = { false, '\0' }, valp = { true, 'a' };
         stack<pair<bool, char>> sp, tp;
+        pair<short, char> maxp = { 0, '\0' }, valp = { 42, 'a' };
+        stack<pair<short, char>> sp, tp;
         REPEAT_TIMED( "push_pair", N, sp.push( valp ); )

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cpp-stack.hpp

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 #include <utility>
 template<typename T> class stack {
+template<typename T> struct stack {
         struct node {
                 T value;
+                node* next;
+                node * next;
+                node( const T & v, node * n = nullptr ) : value( v ), next( n ) {}
+        };
+        node * head;
+                node( const T& v, node* n = nullptr ) : value(v), next(n) {}
+        };
+        node* head;
+        stack() : head( nullptr ) {}
+        stack( const stack<T> & o ) { copy( o ); }
-        void copy(const stack<T>& o) {
-                node** crnt = &head;
-                for ( node* next = o.head; next; next = next->next ) {
-                        *crnt = new node{ next->value }; /***/
-                        crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+                }
-                *crnt = nullptr;
+        }
-public:
         void clear() {
             for ( node* next = head; next; ) {
                         node* crnt = next;
+                for ( node * next = head; next; ) {
+                        node * crnt = next;
                         next = crnt->next;
                         delete crnt;
 …
+        }
+        stack() : head(nullptr) {}
+        stack(const stack<T>& o) { copy(o); }
+        stack(stack<T>&& o) : head(o.head) { o.head = nullptr; }
+        void copy( const stack<T> & o ) {
+                node ** crnt = &head;
+                for ( node * next = o.head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                        *crnt = new node{ next->value }; /***/
+                        crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+                }
+                *crnt = nullptr;
+        }
         ~stack() { clear(); }
         stack& operator= (const stack<T>& o) {
+        stack & operator= ( const stack<T> & o ) {
                 if ( this == &o ) return *this;
                 clear();
+                copy(o);
+                return *this;
+        }
+        stack& operator= (stack<T>&& o) {
+                if ( this == &o ) return *this;
+                head = o.head;
+                o.head = nullptr;
+                copy( o );
                 return *this;
+        }
 …
         bool empty() const { return head == nullptr; }
         void push(const T& value) { head = new node{ value, head };  /***/ }
+        void push( const T & value ) { head = new node{ value, head };  /***/ }
         T pop() {
                 node* n = head;
+                node * n = head;
                 head = n->next;
                 T x = std::move(n->value);
+                T v = std::move( n->value );
                 delete n;
                 return x;
+                return v;
+        }
 };

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cpp-vbench.cpp

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
         REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_int", N, maxi = std::max( maxi, ti.pop()->as<integer>() ); /***/ )
         ptr<pair> maxp = make<pair>( make<boolean>(false), make<character>('\0') );
         pair valp{ make<boolean>(true), make<character>('a') };
+        ptr<pair> maxp = make<pair>( make<short_integer>(0), make<character>('\0') );
+        pair valp{ make<short_integer>(42), make<character>('a') };
         stack sp, tp;

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cpp-vstack.cpp

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 #include <utility>
+stack::node::node( const object& v, node* n ) : value( v.new_copy() ), next( n ) {}
+void stack::copy(const stack& o) {
+        node** crnt = &head;
+        for ( node* next = o.head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                *crnt = new node{ *next->value };
+                crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+        }
+        *crnt = nullptr;
+}
+stack::stack() : head(nullptr) {}
+stack::stack(const stack& o) { copy(o); }
+stack::stack(stack&& o) : head(o.head) { o.head = nullptr; }
+stack::~stack() { clear(); }
+stack& stack::operator= (const stack& o) {
+        if ( this == &o ) return *this;
+        clear();
+        copy(o);
+        return *this;
+}
+stack& stack::operator= (stack&& o) {
+        if ( this == &o ) return *this;
+        head = o.head;
+        o.head = nullptr;
+        return *this;
+}
+stack::node::node( const object & v, node * n ) : value( v.new_copy() ), next( n ) {}
 void stack::clear() {
     for ( node* next = head; next; ) {
                 node* crnt = next;
+        for ( node * next = head; next; ) {
+                node * crnt = next;
                 next = crnt->next;
                 delete crnt;
 …
+}
+void stack::copy( const stack & o ) {
+        node ** crnt = &head;
+        for ( node * next = o.head; next; next = next->next ) {
+                *crnt = new node{ *next->value }; /***/
+                crnt = &(*crnt)->next;
+        }
+        *crnt = nullptr;
+}
+stack::stack() : head( nullptr ) {}
+stack::stack( const stack & o ) { copy( o ); }
+stack::~stack() { clear(); }
+stack & stack::operator=( const stack & o ) {
+        if ( this == &o ) return *this;
+        clear();
+        copy( o );
+        return *this;
+}
 bool stack::empty() const { return head == nullptr; }
 void stack::push(const object& value) { head = new node{ value, head }; /***/ }
+void stack::push( const object & value ) { head = new node{ value, head }; /***/ }
 ptr<object> stack::pop() {
         node* n = head;
+        node * n = head;
         head = n->next;
         ptr<object> x = std::move(n->value);
+        ptr<object> v = std::move( n->value );
         delete n;
         return x;
+        return v;
+}

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cpp-vstack.hpp

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 #include "object.hpp"
 class stack {
+struct stack {
         struct node {
                 ptr<object> value;
+                node* next;
+                node( const object& v, node* n = nullptr );
+                node * next;
+                node( const object & v, node * n = nullptr );
         };
+        node* head;
+        void copy(const stack& o);
+public:
+        stack();
+        stack(const stack& o);
+        stack(stack&& o);
+        ~stack();
+        stack& operator= (const stack& o);
+        stack& operator= (stack&& o);
+        node * head;
         void clear();
+        void copy( const stack & o );
+        stack();
+        stack( const stack & o );
+        ~stack();
+        stack & operator=( const stack& o );
         bool empty() const;
         void push(const object& value);
+        void push( const object & value );
         ptr<object> pop();
 };

doc/papers/general/evaluation/object.hpp

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 };
-class boolean : public ordered, public printable {
-        bool x;
-public:
-        boolean() = default;
-        boolean(bool x) : x(x) {}
-        boolean(const boolean&) = default;
-        boolean(boolean&&) = default;
-        ptr<object> new_inst() const override { return make<boolean>(); }
-        ptr<object> new_copy() const override { return make<boolean>(*this); }
-        boolean& operator= (const boolean& that) {
-                x = that.x;
-                return *this;
+        }
-        object& operator= (const object& that) override { return *this = that.as<boolean>(); } /***/
-        boolean& operator= (boolean&&) = default;
-        ~boolean() override = default;
-        int cmp(const boolean& that) const { return x == that.x ? 0 : x == false ? -1 : 1; }
-        int cmp(const ordered& that) const override { return cmp( that.as<boolean>() ); } /***/
-        void print(std::ostream& out) const override { out << (x ? "true" : "false"); }
-};
 class character : public ordered, public printable {
         char x;
 …
 };
+class short_integer : public ordered, public printable {
+        short x;
+public:
+        short_integer() = default;
+        short_integer(short x) : x(x) {}
+        short_integer(const short_integer&) = default;
+        short_integer(short_integer&&) = default;
+        ptr<object> new_inst() const override { return make<short_integer>(); }
+        ptr<object> new_copy() const override { return make<short_integer>(*this); }
+        short_integer& operator= (const short_integer& that) {
+                x = that.x;
+                return *this;
+        }
+        object& operator= (const object& that) override { return *this = that.as<short_integer>(); } /***/
+        short_integer& operator= (short_integer&&) = default;
+        ~short_integer() override = default;
+        int cmp(const short_integer& that) const { return x == that.x ? 0 : x < that.x ? -1 : 1; }
+        int cmp(const ordered& that) const override { return cmp( that.as<short_integer>() ); } /***/
+        void print(std::ostream& out) const override { out << x; }
+};
 class integer : public ordered, public printable {
         int x;
 …
         void print(std::ostream& out) const override { out << x; }
-};
-class c_string : public printable {
-        static constexpr const char* empty = "";
-        const char* s;
-public:
-        c_string() : s(empty) {}
-        c_string(const char* s) : s(s) {}
-        c_string(const c_string&) = default;
-        c_string(c_string&&) = default;
-        ptr<object> new_inst() const override { return make<c_string>(); }
-        ptr<object> new_copy() const override { return make<c_string>(s); }
-        c_string& operator= (const c_string& that) {
-                s = that.s;
-                return *this;
+        }
-        object& operator= (const object& that) override { return *this = that.as<c_string>(); } /***/
-        c_string& operator= (c_string&&) = default;
-        ~c_string() override = default;
-        void print(std::ostream& out) const override { out << s; }
 };
 …
                 return y->as<ordered>().cmp( that.y->as<ordered>() ); /***/
+        }
         int cmp(const ordered& that) const override { return cmp( that.as<pair>() ); }
+        int cmp(const ordered& that) const override { return cmp( that.as<pair>() ); } /***/
         void print(std::ostream& out) const override {

doc/papers/general/evaluation/timing.dat

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 "400 million repetitions"       "C"     "\\CFA{}"       "\\CC{}"        "\\CC{obj}"
+"push\nint"     2976    2225    1522    3266
+"copy\nnt"      2932    7072    1526    3110
+"clear\nint"    1380    731     750     1488
+"pop\nint"      1444    1196    756     5156
+"push\npair"    3695    2257    953     6840
+"copy\npair"    6034    6650    994     7224
+"clear\npair"   2832    848     742     3297
+"pop\npair"     3009    5348    797     25235
+"push\nint"     3002    2459    1542    3269
+"copy\nint"     2985    2057    1539    3083
+"clear\nint"    1374    827     756     1469
+"pop\nint"      1416    1221    760     5098
+"push\npair"    4214    2752    950     6873
+"copy\npair"    6127    2105    987     7293
+"clear\npair"   2881    885     751     3460
+"pop\npair"     3046    5434    822     24962

doc/papers/general/evaluation/timing.gp

-              rb2fe1c9
+              r32cab5b
 SCALE=1000
 set ylabel "seconds"
+set yrange [0:10]
+set label "25.0" at 7.125,10.5
 # set datafile separator ","

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doc/papers/concurrency/Paper.tex

doc/papers/concurrency/annex/local.bib

doc/papers/concurrency/style/cfa-format.tex

doc/papers/general/.gitignore

doc/papers/general/Makefile

doc/papers/general/Paper.tex

doc/papers/general/evaluation/c-bench.c

doc/papers/general/evaluation/c-stack.c

doc/papers/general/evaluation/c-stack.h

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cfa-bench.c

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cfa-stack.c

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cfa-stack.h

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cpp-bench.cpp

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cpp-stack.hpp

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cpp-vbench.cpp

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cpp-vstack.cpp

doc/papers/general/evaluation/cpp-vstack.hpp

doc/papers/general/evaluation/object.hpp

doc/papers/general/evaluation/timing.dat

doc/papers/general/evaluation/timing.gp

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