Changeset ea46db7


Ignore:
Timestamp:
Mar 4, 2018, 12:20:36 PM (6 years ago)
Author:
Peter A. Buhr <pabuhr@…>
Branches:
ADT, aaron-thesis, arm-eh, ast-experimental, cleanup-dtors, deferred_resn, demangler, enum, forall-pointer-decay, jacob/cs343-translation, jenkins-sandbox, master, new-ast, new-ast-unique-expr, new-env, no_list, persistent-indexer, pthread-emulation, qualifiedEnum, resolv-new, with_gc
Children:
1feb535f, d893266a
Parents:
0a2168f
git-author:
Peter A. Buhr <pabuhr@…> (03/04/18 10:35:22)
git-committer:
Peter A. Buhr <pabuhr@…> (03/04/18 12:20:36)
Message:

updates, and extend section on user literals

Files:
5 edited

Legend:

Unmodified
Added
Removed
  • doc/papers/general/Paper.tex

    r0a2168f rea46db7  
    990990\section{Control Structures}
    991991
    992 \CFA identifies missing and problematic control structures in C, and extends and modifies these control structures to increase functionality and safety.
     992\CFA identifies inconsistent, problematic, and missing control structures in C, and extends, modifies, and adds to control structures to increase functionality and safety.
     993
     994
     995\subsection{\texorpdfstring{\LstKeywordStyle{if} Statement}{if Statement}}
     996
     997The @if@ expression allows declarations, similar to @for@ declaration expression:
     998\begin{cfa}
     999if ( int x = f() ) ...                                          $\C{// x != 0}$
     1000if ( int x = f(), y = g() ) ...                         $\C{// x != 0 \&\& y != 0}$
     1001if ( int x = f(), y = g(); `x < y` ) ...        $\C{// relational expression}$
     1002\end{cfa}
     1003Unless a relational expression is specified, each variable is compared not equal to 0, which is the standard semantics for the @if@ expression, and the results are combined using the logical @&&@ operator.\footnote{\CC only provides a single declaration always compared not equal to 0.}
     1004The scope of the declaration(s) is local to the @if@ statement but exist within both the ``then'' and ``else'' clauses.
     1005
     1006
     1007\subsection{\texorpdfstring{\LstKeywordStyle{switch} Statement}{switch Statement}}
     1008
     1009There are a number of deficiencies with the C @switch@ statements: enumerating @case@ lists, placement of @case@ clauses, scope of the switch body, and fall through between case clauses.
     1010
     1011C has no shorthand for specifying a list of case values, whether the list is non-contiguous or contiguous\footnote{C provides this mechanism via fall through.}.
     1012\CFA provides a shorthand for a non-contiguous list:
     1013\begin{cquote}
     1014\lstDeleteShortInline@%
     1015\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
     1016\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
     1017\begin{cfa}
     1018case 2, 10, 34, 42:
     1019\end{cfa}
     1020&
     1021\begin{cfa}
     1022case 2: case 10: case 34: case 42:
     1023\end{cfa}
     1024\end{tabular}
     1025\lstMakeShortInline@%
     1026\end{cquote}
     1027for a contiguous list:\footnote{gcc provides the same mechanism with awkward syntax, \lstinline@2 ... 42@, where spaces are required around the ellipse.}
     1028\begin{cquote}
     1029\lstDeleteShortInline@%
     1030\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
     1031\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
     1032\begin{cfa}
     1033case 2~42:
     1034\end{cfa}
     1035&
     1036\begin{cfa}
     1037case 2: case 3: ... case 41: case 42:
     1038\end{cfa}
     1039\end{tabular}
     1040\lstMakeShortInline@%
     1041\end{cquote}
     1042and a combination:
     1043\begin{cfa}
     1044case -12~-4, -1~5, 14~21, 34~42:
     1045\end{cfa}
     1046
     1047C allows placement of @case@ clauses \emph{within} statements nested in the @switch@ body (see Duff's device~\cite{Duff83});
     1048\begin{cfa}
     1049switch ( i ) {
     1050  case 0:
     1051        for ( int i = 0; i < 10; i += 1 ) {
     1052                ...
     1053  `case 1:`             // no initialization of loop index
     1054                ...
     1055        }
     1056}
     1057\end{cfa}
     1058\CFA precludes this form of transfer into a control structure because it causes undefined behaviour, especially with respect to missed initialization, and provides very limited functionality.
     1059
     1060C allows placement of declaration within the @switch@ body and unreachable code at the start, resulting in undefined behaviour:
     1061\begin{cfa}
     1062switch ( x ) {
     1063        `int y = 1;`                                                    $\C{// unreachable initialization}$
     1064        `x = 7;`                                                                $\C{// unreachable code without label/branch}$
     1065  case 0:
     1066        ...
     1067        `int z = 0;`                                                    $\C{// unreachable initialization, cannot appear after case}$
     1068        z = 2;
     1069  case 1:
     1070        `x = z;`                                                                $\C{// without fall through, z is undefined}$
     1071}
     1072\end{cfa}
     1073\CFA allows the declaration of local variables, \eg @y@, at the start of the @switch@ with scope across the entire @switch@ body, \ie all @case@ clauses.
     1074\CFA disallows the declaration of local variable, \eg @z@, directly within the @switch@ body, because a declaration cannot occur immediately after a @case@ since a label can only be attached to a statement, and the use of @z@ is undefined in @case 1@ as neither storage allocation nor initialization may have occurred.
     1075
     1076C @switch@ provides multiple entry points into the statement body, but once an entry point is selected, control continues across \emph{all} @case@ clauses until the end of the @switch@ body, called \newterm{fall through};
     1077@case@ clauses are made disjoint by the @break@ statement.
     1078While the ability to fall through \emph{is} a useful form of control flow, it does not match well with programmer intuition, resulting in many errors from missing @break@ statements.
     1079For backwards compatibility, \CFA provides a \emph{new} control structure, @choose@, which mimics @switch@, but reverses the meaning of fall through (see Figure~\ref{f:ChooseSwitchStatements}).
     1080Collectively, these enhancements reduce programmer burden and increase readability and safety.
     1081
     1082\begin{figure}
     1083\centering
     1084\lstDeleteShortInline@%
     1085\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
     1086\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
     1087\begin{cfa}
     1088`choose` ( day ) {
     1089  case Mon~Thu:  // program
     1090
     1091  case Fri:  // program
     1092        wallet += pay;
     1093        `fallthrough;`
     1094  case Sat:  // party
     1095        wallet -= party;
     1096
     1097  case Sun:  // rest
     1098
     1099  default:  // error
     1100}
     1101\end{cfa}
     1102&
     1103\begin{cfa}
     1104switch ( day ) {
     1105  case Mon: case Tue: case Wed: case Thu:  // program
     1106        `break;`
     1107  case Fri:  // program
     1108        wallet += pay;
     1109
     1110  case Sat:  // party
     1111        wallet -= party;
     1112        `break;`
     1113  case Sun:  // rest
     1114        `break;`
     1115  default:  // error
     1116}
     1117\end{cfa}
     1118\end{tabular}
     1119\lstMakeShortInline@%
     1120\caption{\lstinline|choose| versus \lstinline|switch| Statements}
     1121\label{f:ChooseSwitchStatements}
     1122\end{figure}
     1123
     1124\begin{comment}
     1125Forgotten @break@ statements at the end of @switch@ cases are a persistent sort of programmer error in C, and the @break@ statements themselves introduce visual clutter and an un-C-like keyword-based block delimiter.
     1126\CFA addresses this error by introducing a @choose@ statement, which works identically to a @switch@ except that its default end-of-case behaviour is to break rather than to fall through for all non-empty cases.
     1127Since empty cases like @case 7:@ in @case 7: case 11:@ still have fall-through semantics and explicit @break@ is still allowed at the end of a @choose@ case, many idiomatic uses of @switch@ in standard C can be converted to @choose@ statements by simply changing the keyword.
     1128Where fall-through is desired for a non-empty case, it can be specified with the new @fallthrough@ statement, making @choose@ equivalently powerful to @switch@, but more concise in the common case where most non-empty cases end with a @break@ statement, as in the example below:
     1129
     1130\begin{cfa}
     1131choose( i ) {
     1132        case 2:
     1133                printf("even ");
     1134                fallthrough;
     1135        case 3: case 5: case 7:
     1136                printf("small prime\n");
     1137        case 4,6,8,9:
     1138                printf("small composite\n");
     1139        case 13~19:
     1140                printf("teen\n");
     1141        default:
     1142                printf("something else\n");
     1143}
     1144\end{cfa}
     1145\end{comment}
    9931146
    9941147
     
    10501203                } else {
    10511204                        ... goto `LIF`; ...
    1052                 } `L3:` ;
     1205                } `LIF:` ;
    10531206        } `LS:` ;
    10541207} `LC:` ;
     
    11001253
    11011254
    1102 \subsection{\texorpdfstring{Enhanced \LstKeywordStyle{switch} Statement}{Enhanced switch Statement}}
    1103 
    1104 There are a number of deficiencies with the C @switch@ statements: enumerating @case@ lists, placement of @case@ clauses, scope of the switch body, and fall through between case clauses.
    1105 
    1106 C has no shorthand for specifying a list of case values, whether the list is non-contiguous or contiguous\footnote{C provides this mechanism via fall through.}.
    1107 \CFA provides a shorthand for a non-contiguous list:
     1255\subsection{Exception Handling}
     1256
     1257The following framework for \CFA exception handling is in place, excluding a run-time type information and dynamic casts.
     1258\CFA provides two forms of exception handling: \newterm{fix-up} and \newterm{recovery} (see Figure~\ref{f:CFAExceptionHandling}).
     1259Both mechanisms provide dynamic call to a handler using dynamic name-lookup, where fix-up has dynamic return and recovery has static return from the handler.
     1260\CFA restricts exception types to those defined by aggregate type @exception@.
     1261The form of the raise dictates the set of handlers examined during propagation: \newterm{resumption propagation} (@resume@) only examines resumption handlers (@catchResume@); \newterm{terminating propagation} (@throw@) only examines termination handlers (@catch@).
     1262If @resume@ or @throw@ have no exception type, it is a reresume/rethrow, meaning the currently exception continues propagation.
     1263If there is no current exception, the reresume/rethrow results in a runtime error.
     1264
     1265\begin{figure}
    11081266\begin{cquote}
    11091267\lstDeleteShortInline@%
    1110 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
    1111 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
    1112 \begin{cfa}
    1113 case 2, 10, 34, 42:
    1114 \end{cfa}
    1115 &
    1116 \begin{cfa}
    1117 case 2: case 10: case 34: case 42:
     1268\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
     1269\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{Resumption}}      & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{Termination}}      \\
     1270\begin{cfa}
     1271`exception R { int fix; };`
     1272void f() {
     1273        R r;
     1274        ... `resume( r );` ...
     1275        ... r.fix // control does return here after handler
     1276}
     1277`try` {
     1278        ... f(); ...
     1279} `catchResume( R r )` {
     1280        ... r.fix = ...; // return correction to raise
     1281} // dynamic return to _Resume
     1282\end{cfa}
     1283&
     1284\begin{cfa}
     1285`exception T {};`
     1286void f() {
     1287
     1288        ... `throw( T{} );` ...
     1289        // control does NOT return here after handler
     1290}
     1291`try` {
     1292        ... f(); ...
     1293} `catch( T t )` {
     1294        ... // recover and continue
     1295} // static return to next statement
    11181296\end{cfa}
    11191297\end{tabular}
    11201298\lstMakeShortInline@%
    11211299\end{cquote}
    1122 for a contiguous list:\footnote{gcc provides the same mechanism with awkward syntax, \lstinline@2 ... 42@, where spaces are required around the ellipse.}
     1300\caption{\CFA Exception Handling}
     1301\label{f:CFAExceptionHandling}
     1302\end{figure}
     1303
     1304The set of exception types in a list of catch clause may include both a resumption and termination handler:
     1305\begin{cfa}
     1306try {
     1307        ... resume( `R{}` ); ...
     1308} catchResume( `R` r ) { ... throw( R{} ); ... } $\C{\color{red}// H1}$
     1309   catch( `R` r ) { ... }                                       $\C{\color{red}// H2}$
     1310
     1311\end{cfa}
     1312The resumption propagation raises @R@ and the stack is not unwound;
     1313the exception is caught by the @catchResume@ clause and handler H1 is invoked.
     1314The termination propagation in handler H1 raises @R@ and the stack is unwound;
     1315the exception is caught by the @catch@ clause and handler H2 is invoked.
     1316The termination handler is available because the resumption propagation did not unwind the stack.
     1317
     1318An additional feature is conditional matching in a catch clause:
     1319\begin{cfa}
     1320try {
     1321        ... write( `datafile`, ... ); ...               $\C{// may throw IOError}$
     1322        ... write( `logfile`, ... ); ...
     1323} catch ( IOError err; `err.file == datafile` ) { ... } $\C{// handle datafile error}$
     1324   catch ( IOError err; `err.file == logfile` ) { ... } $\C{// handle logfile error}$
     1325   catch ( IOError err ) { ... }                        $\C{// handler error from other files}$
     1326\end{cfa}
     1327where the throw inserts the failing file-handle in the I/O exception.
     1328Conditional catch cannot be trivially mimicked by other mechanisms because once an exception is caught, handler clauses in that @try@ statement are no longer eligible..
     1329
     1330The resumption raise can specify an alternate stack on which to raise an exception, called a \newterm{nonlocal raise}:
     1331\begin{cfa}
     1332resume( $\emph{exception-type}$, $\emph{alternate-stack}$ )
     1333resume( $\emph{alternate-stack}$ )
     1334\end{cfa}
     1335These overloads of @resume@ raise the specified exception or the currently propagating exception (reresume) at another coroutine or task~\cite{Delisle18}.
     1336Nonlocal raise is restricted to resumption to provide the exception handler the greatest flexibility because processing the exception does not unwind its stack, allowing it to continue after the handle returns.
     1337
     1338To facilitate nonlocal exception, \CFA provides dynamic enabling and disabling of nonlocal exception-propagation.
     1339The constructs for controlling propagation of nonlocal exceptions are the @enable@ and the @disable@ blocks:
    11231340\begin{cquote}
    11241341\lstDeleteShortInline@%
    1125 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
    1126 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
    1127 \begin{cfa}
    1128 case 2~42:
    1129 \end{cfa}
    1130 &
    1131 \begin{cfa}
    1132 case 2: case 3: ... case 41: case 42:
     1342\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
     1343\begin{cfa}
     1344enable $\emph{exception-type-list}$ {
     1345        // allow non-local resumption
     1346}
     1347\end{cfa}
     1348&
     1349\begin{cfa}
     1350disable $\emph{exception-type-list}$ {
     1351        // disallow non-local resumption
     1352}
    11331353\end{cfa}
    11341354\end{tabular}
    11351355\lstMakeShortInline@%
    11361356\end{cquote}
    1137 and a combination:
    1138 \begin{cfa}
    1139 case -12~-4, -1~5, 14~21, 34~42:
    1140 \end{cfa}
    1141 
    1142 C allows placement of @case@ clauses \emph{within} statements nested in the @switch@ body (see Duff's device~\cite{Duff83});
    1143 \begin{cfa}
    1144 switch ( i ) {
    1145   case 0:
    1146         for ( int i = 0; i < 10; i += 1 ) {
    1147                 ...
    1148   `case 1:`             // no initialization of loop index
    1149                 ...
    1150         }
    1151 }
    1152 \end{cfa}
    1153 \CFA precludes this form of transfer into a control structure because it causes undefined behaviour, especially with respect to missed initialization, and provides very limited functionality.
    1154 
    1155 C allows placement of declaration within the @switch@ body and unreachable code at the start, resulting in undefined behaviour:
    1156 \begin{cfa}
    1157 switch ( x ) {
    1158         `int y = 1;`                            $\C{// unreachable initialization}$
    1159         `x = 7;`                                        $\C{// unreachable code without label/branch}$
    1160   case 0:
    1161         ...
    1162         `int z = 0;`                            $\C{// unreachable initialization, cannot appear after case}$
    1163         z = 2;
    1164   case 1:
    1165         `x = z;`                                        $\C{// without fall through, z is undefined}$
    1166 }
    1167 \end{cfa}
    1168 \CFA allows the declaration of local variables, \eg @y@, at the start of the @switch@ with scope across the entire @switch@ body, \ie all @case@ clauses.
    1169 \CFA disallows the declaration of local variable, \eg @z@, directly within the @switch@ body, because a declaration cannot occur immediately after a @case@ since a label can only be attached to a statement, and the use of @z@ is undefined in @case 1@ as neither storage allocation nor initialization may have occurred.
    1170 
    1171 C @switch@ provides multiple entry points into the statement body, but once an entry point is selected, control continues across \emph{all} @case@ clauses until the end of the @switch@ body, called \newterm{fall through};
    1172 @case@ clauses are made disjoint by the @break@ statement.
    1173 While the ability to fall through \emph{is} a useful form of control flow, it does not match well with programmer intuition, resulting in many errors from missing @break@ statements.
    1174 For backwards compatibility, \CFA provides a \emph{new} control structure, @choose@, which mimics @switch@, but reverses the meaning of fall through (see Figure~\ref{f:ChooseSwitchStatements}).
    1175 Collectively, these enhancements reduce programmer burden and increase readability and safety.
    1176 
    1177 \begin{figure}
    1178 \centering
    1179 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
    1180 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
    1181 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}    & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
    1182 \begin{cfa}
    1183 `choose` ( day ) {
    1184   case Mon~Thu:  // program
    1185 
    1186   case Fri:  // program
    1187         wallet += pay;
    1188         `fallthrough;`
    1189   case Sat:  // party
    1190         wallet -= party;
    1191 
    1192   case Sun:  // rest
    1193 
    1194   default:  // error
    1195 }
    1196 \end{cfa}
    1197 &
    1198 \begin{cfa}
    1199 switch ( day ) {
    1200   case Mon: case Tue: case Wed: case Thu:  // program
    1201         `break;`
    1202   case Fri:  // program
    1203         wallet += pay;
    1204 
    1205   case Sat:  // party
    1206         wallet -= party;
    1207         `break;`
    1208   case Sun:  // rest
    1209         `break;`
    1210   default:  // error
    1211 }
    1212 \end{cfa}
    1213 \end{tabular}
    1214 \lstMakeShortInline@%
    1215 \caption{\lstinline|choose| versus \lstinline|switch| Statements}
    1216 \label{f:ChooseSwitchStatements}
    1217 \end{figure}
    1218 
    1219 \begin{comment}
    1220 Forgotten @break@ statements at the end of @switch@ cases are a persistent sort of programmer error in C, and the @break@ statements themselves introduce visual clutter and an un-C-like keyword-based block delimiter.
    1221 \CFA addresses this error by introducing a @choose@ statement, which works identically to a @switch@ except that its default end-of-case behaviour is to break rather than to fall through for all non-empty cases.
    1222 Since empty cases like @case 7:@ in @case 7: case 11:@ still have fall-through semantics and explicit @break@ is still allowed at the end of a @choose@ case, many idiomatic uses of @switch@ in standard C can be converted to @choose@ statements by simply changing the keyword.
    1223 Where fall-through is desired for a non-empty case, it can be specified with the new @fallthrough@ statement, making @choose@ equivalently powerful to @switch@, but more concise in the common case where most non-empty cases end with a @break@ statement, as in the example below:
    1224 
    1225 \begin{cfa}
    1226 choose( i ) {
    1227         case 2:
    1228                 printf("even ");
    1229                 fallthrough;
    1230         case 3: case 5: case 7:
    1231                 printf("small prime\n");
    1232         case 4,6,8,9:
    1233                 printf("small composite\n");
    1234         case 13~19:
    1235                 printf("teen\n");
    1236         default:
    1237                 printf("something else\n");
    1238 }
    1239 \end{cfa}
    1240 \end{comment}
     1357The arguments for @enable@/@disable@ specify the exception types allowed to be propagated or postponed, respectively.
     1358Specifying no exception type is shorthand for specifying all exception types.
     1359Both @enable@ and @disable@ blocks can be nested, turning propagation on/off on entry, and on exit, the specified exception types are restored to their prior state.
     1360
     1361Finally, \CFA provides a Java like  @finally@ clause after the catch clauses:
     1362\begin{cfa}
     1363try {
     1364        ... f(); ...
     1365// catchResume or catch clauses
     1366} `finally` {
     1367        // house keeping
     1368}
     1369\end{cfa}
     1370The finally clause is always executed, i.e., if the try block ends normally or if an exception is raised.
     1371If an exception is raised and caught, the handler is run before the finally clause.
     1372Like a destructor (see Section~\ref{s:ConstructorsDestructors}), a finally clause can raise an exception but not if there is an exception being propagated.
     1373Mimicking the @finally@ clause with mechanisms like RAII is non-trivially when there are multiple types and local accesses.
    12411374
    12421375
     
    12531386S s, as[10];
    12541387\end{cfa}
    1255 However, routines manipulating aggregates must repeat the aggregate name to access its containing fields:
     1388However, functions manipulating aggregates must repeat the aggregate name to access its containing fields:
    12561389\begin{cfa}
    12571390void f( S s ) {
     
    12711404}
    12721405\end{C++}
    1273 Object-oriented nesting of member routines in a \lstinline[language=C++]@class@ allows eliding \lstinline[language=C++]@this->@ because of lexical scoping.
     1406Object-oriented nesting of member functions in a \lstinline[language=C++]@class@ allows eliding \lstinline[language=C++]@this->@ because of lexical scoping.
    12741407However, for other aggregate parameters, qualification is necessary:
    12751408\begin{cfa}
     
    13011434        'with' '(' $\emph{expression-list}$ ')' $\emph{compound-statement}$
    13021435\end{cfa}
    1303 and may appear as the body of a routine or nested within a routine body.
     1436and may appear as the body of a function or nested within a function body.
    13041437Each expression in the expression-list provides a type and object.
    13051438The type must be an aggregate type.
     
    13281461Qualification or a cast is used to disambiguate.
    13291462
    1330 There is an interesting problem between parameters and the routine @with@, \eg:
     1463There is an interesting problem between parameters and the function @with@, \eg:
    13311464\begin{cfa}
    13321465void ?{}( S & s, int i ) with ( s ) {           $\C{// constructor}$
     
    13341467}
    13351468\end{cfa}
    1336 Here, the assignment @s.i = i@ means @s.i = s.i@, which is meaningless, and there is no mechanism to qualify the parameter @i@, making the assignment impossible using the routine @with@.
     1469Here, the assignment @s.i = i@ means @s.i = s.i@, which is meaningless, and there is no mechanism to qualify the parameter @i@, making the assignment impossible using the function @with@.
    13371470To solve this problem, parameters are treated like an initialized aggregate:
    13381471\begin{cfa}
     
    13421475} params;
    13431476\end{cfa}
    1344 and implicitly opened \emph{after} a routine open, to give them higher priority:
     1477and implicitly opened \emph{after} a function open, to give them higher priority:
    13451478\begin{cfa}
    13461479void ?{}( S & s, int i ) with ( s ) `with( $\emph{\color{red}params}$ )` {
     
    13701503
    13711504
    1372 \subsection{Exception Handling}
    1373 
    1374 The following framework for \CFA exception handling is in place, excluding a run-time type information and dynamic casts.
    1375 \CFA provides two forms of exception handling: \newterm{fix-up} and \newterm{recovery} (see Figure~\ref{f:CFAExceptionHandling}).
    1376 Both mechanisms provide dynamic call to a handler using dynamic name-lookup, where fix-up has dynamic return and recovery has static return from the handler.
    1377 \CFA restricts exception types to those defined by aggregate type @exception@.
    1378 The form of the raise dictates the set of handlers examined during propagation: \newterm{resumption propagation} (@resume@) only examines resumption handlers (@catchResume@); \newterm{terminating propagation} (@throw@) only examines termination handlers (@catch@).
    1379 If @resume@ or @throw@ have no exception type, it is a reresume/rethrow, meaning the currently exception continues propagation.
    1380 If there is no current exception, the reresume/rethrow results in a runtime error.
    1381 
    1382 \begin{figure}
    1383 \begin{cquote}
    1384 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
    1385 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
    1386 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{Resumption}}      & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{Termination}}      \\
    1387 \begin{cfa}
    1388 `exception R { int fix; };`
    1389 void f() {
    1390         R r;
    1391         ... `resume( r );` ...
    1392         ... r.fix // control does return here after handler
    1393 }
    1394 `try` {
    1395         ... f(); ...
    1396 } `catchResume( R r )` {
    1397         ... r.fix = ...; // return correction to raise
    1398 } // dynamic return to _Resume
    1399 \end{cfa}
    1400 &
    1401 \begin{cfa}
    1402 `exception T {};`
    1403 void f() {
    1404 
    1405         ... `throw( T{} );` ...
    1406         // control does NOT return here after handler
    1407 }
    1408 `try` {
    1409         ... f(); ...
    1410 } `catch( T t )` {
    1411         ... // recover and continue
    1412 } // static return to next statement
    1413 \end{cfa}
    1414 \end{tabular}
    1415 \lstMakeShortInline@%
    1416 \end{cquote}
    1417 \caption{\CFA Exception Handling}
    1418 \label{f:CFAExceptionHandling}
    1419 \end{figure}
    1420 
    1421 The set of exception types in a list of catch clause may include both a resumption and termination handler:
    1422 \begin{cfa}
    1423 try {
    1424         ... resume( `R{}` ); ...
    1425 } catchResume( `R` r ) { ... throw( R{} ); ... } $\C{\color{red}// H1}$
    1426    catch( `R` r ) { ... }                                       $\C{\color{red}// H2}$
    1427 
    1428 \end{cfa}
    1429 The resumption propagation raises @R@ and the stack is not unwound;
    1430 the exception is caught by the @catchResume@ clause and handler H1 is invoked.
    1431 The termination propagation in handler H1 raises @R@ and the stack is unwound;
    1432 the exception is caught by the @catch@ clause and handler H2 is invoked.
    1433 The termination handler is available because the resumption propagation did not unwind the stack.
    1434 
    1435 An additional feature is conditional matching in a catch clause:
    1436 \begin{cfa}
    1437 try {
    1438         ... write( `datafile`, ... ); ...               $\C{// may throw IOError}$
    1439         ... write( `logfile`, ... ); ...
    1440 } catch ( IOError err; `err.file == datafile` ) { ... } $\C{// handle datafile error}$
    1441    catch ( IOError err; `err.file == logfile` ) { ... } $\C{// handle logfile error}$
    1442    catch ( IOError err ) { ... }                        $\C{// handler error from other files}$
    1443 \end{cfa}
    1444 where the throw inserts the failing file-handle in the I/O exception.
    1445 Conditional catch cannot be trivially mimicked by other mechanisms because once an exception is caught, handler clauses in that @try@ statement are no longer eligible..
    1446 
    1447 The resumption raise can specify an alternate stack on which to raise an exception, called a \newterm{nonlocal raise}:
    1448 \begin{cfa}
    1449 resume( $\emph{exception-type}$, $\emph{alternate-stack}$ )
    1450 resume( $\emph{alternate-stack}$ )
    1451 \end{cfa}
    1452 These overloads of @resume@ raise the specified exception or the currently propagating exception (reresume) at another coroutine or task~\cite{Delisle18}.
    1453 Nonlocal raise is restricted to resumption to provide the exception handler the greatest flexibility because processing the exception does not unwind its stack, allowing it to continue after the handle returns.
    1454 
    1455 To facilitate nonlocal exception, \CFA provides dynamic enabling and disabling of nonlocal exception-propagation.
    1456 The constructs for controlling propagation of nonlocal exceptions are the @enable@ and the @disable@ blocks:
    1457 \begin{cquote}
    1458 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
    1459 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{2\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
    1460 \begin{cfa}
    1461 enable $\emph{exception-type-list}$ {
    1462         // allow non-local resumption
    1463 }
    1464 \end{cfa}
    1465 &
    1466 \begin{cfa}
    1467 disable $\emph{exception-type-list}$ {
    1468         // disallow non-local resumption
    1469 }
    1470 \end{cfa}
    1471 \end{tabular}
    1472 \lstMakeShortInline@%
    1473 \end{cquote}
    1474 The arguments for @enable@/@disable@ specify the exception types allowed to be propagated or postponed, respectively.
    1475 Specifying no exception type is shorthand for specifying all exception types.
    1476 Both @enable@ and @disable@ blocks can be nested, turning propagation on/off on entry, and on exit, the specified exception types are restored to their prior state.
    1477 
    1478 Finally, \CFA provides a Java like  @finally@ clause after the catch clauses:
    1479 \begin{cfa}
    1480 try {
    1481         ... f(); ...
    1482 // catchResume or catch clauses
    1483 } `finally` {
    1484         // house keeping
    1485 }
    1486 \end{cfa}
    1487 The finally clause is always executed, i.e., if the try block ends normally or if an exception is raised.
    1488 If an exception is raised and caught, the handler is run before the finally clause.
    1489 Like a destructor (see Section~\ref{s:ConstructorsDestructors}), a finally clause can raise an exception but not if there is an exception being propagated.
    1490 Mimicking the @finally@ clause with mechanisms like RAII is non-trivially when there are multiple types and local accesses.
    1491 
    1492 
    14931505\section{Declarations}
    14941506
     
    15181530Is this an array of 5 pointers to integers or a pointer to an array of 5 integers?
    15191531If there is any doubt, it implies productivity and safety issues even for basic programs.
    1520 Another example of confusion results from the fact that a routine name and its parameters are embedded within the return type, mimicking the way the return value is used at the routine's call site.
    1521 For example, a routine returning a pointer to an array of integers is defined and used in the following way:
     1532Another example of confusion results from the fact that a function name and its parameters are embedded within the return type, mimicking the way the return value is used at the function's call site.
     1533For example, a function returning a pointer to an array of integers is defined and used in the following way:
    15221534\begin{cfa}
    15231535int `(*`f`())[`5`]` {...};                                      $\C{// definition}$
    15241536 ... `(*`f`())[`3`]` += 1;                                      $\C{// usage}$
    15251537\end{cfa}
    1526 Essentially, the return type is wrapped around the routine name in successive layers (like an onion).
     1538Essentially, the return type is wrapped around the function name in successive layers (like an onion).
    15271539While attempting to make the two contexts consistent is a laudable goal, it has not worked out in practice.
    15281540
    1529 \CFA provides its own type, variable and routine declarations, using a different syntax.
     1541\CFA provides its own type, variable and function declarations, using a different syntax.
    15301542The new declarations place qualifiers to the left of the base type, while C declarations place qualifiers to the right.
    15311543The qualifiers have the same meaning but are ordered left to right to specify a variable's type.
     
    15551567\end{cquote}
    15561568The only exception is bit field specification, which always appear to the right of the base type.
    1557 % Specifically, the character @*@ is used to indicate a pointer, square brackets @[@\,@]@ are used to represent an array or function return value, and parentheses @()@ are used to indicate a routine parameter.
     1569% Specifically, the character @*@ is used to indicate a pointer, square brackets @[@\,@]@ are used to represent an array or function return value, and parentheses @()@ are used to indicate a function parameter.
    15581570However, unlike C, \CFA type declaration tokens are distributed across all variables in the declaration list.
    15591571For instance, variables @x@ and @y@ of type pointer to integer are defined in \CFA as follows:
     
    16411653\lstMakeShortInline@%
    16421654\end{cquote}
    1643 Specifiers must appear at the start of a \CFA routine declaration\footnote{\label{StorageClassSpecifier}
     1655Specifiers must appear at the start of a \CFA function declaration\footnote{\label{StorageClassSpecifier}
    16441656The placement of a storage-class specifier other than at the beginning of the declaration specifiers in a declaration is an obsolescent feature.~\cite[\S~6.11.5(1)]{C11}}.
    16451657
    1646 The new declaration syntax can be used in other contexts where types are required, \eg casts and the pseudo-routine @sizeof@:
     1658The new declaration syntax can be used in other contexts where types are required, \eg casts and the pseudo-function @sizeof@:
    16471659\begin{cquote}
    16481660\lstDeleteShortInline@%
     
    16621674\end{cquote}
    16631675
    1664 The syntax of the new routine prototype declaration follows directly from the new routine definition syntax;
     1676The syntax of the new function-prototype declaration follows directly from the new function-definition syntax;
    16651677as well, parameter names are optional, \eg:
    16661678\begin{cfa}
     
    16711683[ * int, int ] j ( int );                                       $\C{// returning pointer to int and int, with int parameter}$
    16721684\end{cfa}
    1673 This syntax allows a prototype declaration to be created by cutting and pasting source text from the routine definition header (or vice versa).
    1674 Like C, it is possible to declare multiple routine-prototypes in a single declaration, where the return type is distributed across \emph{all} routine names in the declaration list, \eg:
     1685This syntax allows a prototype declaration to be created by cutting and pasting source text from the function-definition header (or vice versa).
     1686Like C, it is possible to declare multiple function-prototypes in a single declaration, where the return type is distributed across \emph{all} function names in the declaration list, \eg:
    16751687\begin{cquote}
    16761688\lstDeleteShortInline@%
     
    16871699\lstMakeShortInline@%
    16881700\end{cquote}
    1689 where \CFA allows the last routine in the list to define its body.
    1690 
    1691 The syntax for pointers to \CFA routines specifies the pointer name on the right, \eg:
    1692 \begin{cfa}
    1693 * [ int x ] () fp;                                                      $\C{// pointer to routine returning int with no parameters}$
    1694 * [ * int ] ( int y ) gp;                                       $\C{// pointer to routine returning pointer to int with int parameter}$
    1695 * [ ] ( int, char ) hp;                                         $\C{// pointer to routine returning no result with int and char parameters}$
    1696 * [ * int, int ] ( int ) jp;                            $\C{// pointer to routine returning pointer to int and int, with int parameter}$
    1697 \end{cfa}
    1698 Note, a routine name cannot be specified:
    1699 \begin{cfa}
    1700 * [ int x ] f () fp;                                            $\C{// routine name "f" is disallowed}$
     1701where \CFA allows the last function in the list to define its body.
     1702
     1703The syntax for pointers to \CFA functions specifies the pointer name on the right, \eg:
     1704\begin{cfa}
     1705* [ int x ] () fp;                                                      $\C{// pointer to function returning int with no parameters}$
     1706* [ * int ] ( int y ) gp;                                       $\C{// pointer to function returning pointer to int with int parameter}$
     1707* [ ] ( int, char ) hp;                                         $\C{// pointer to function returning no result with int and char parameters}$
     1708* [ * int, int ] ( int ) jp;                            $\C{// pointer to function returning pointer to int and int, with int parameter}$
     1709\end{cfa}
     1710Note, a function name cannot be specified:
     1711\begin{cfa}
     1712* [ int x ] f () fp;                                            $\C{// function name "f" is disallowed}$
    17011713\end{cfa}
    17021714
     
    19181930Destruction parameters are useful for specifying storage-management actions, such as de-initialize but not deallocate.}.
    19191931\begin{cfa}
    1920 struct VLA {
    1921         int len, * data;
    1922 };
    1923 void ?{}( VLA & vla ) with ( vla ) {            $\C{// default constructor}$
    1924         len = 10;  data = alloc( len );                 $\C{// shallow copy}$
    1925 }
    1926 void ^?{}( VLA & vla ) with ( vla ) {           $\C{// destructor}$
    1927         free( data );
    1928 }
     1932struct VLA { int len, * data; };
     1933void ?{}( VLA & vla ) with ( vla ) { len = 10;  data = alloc( len ); }  $\C{// default constructor}$
     1934void ^?{}( VLA & vla ) with ( vla ) { free( data ); } $\C{// destructor}$
    19291935{
    19301936        VLA x;                                                                  $\C{// implicit:  ?\{\}( x );}$
    19311937}                                                                                       $\C{// implicit:  ?\^{}\{\}( x );}$
    19321938\end{cfa}
    1933 (Note, the example is purposely kept simple by using shallow-copy semantics.)
    19341939@VLA@ is a \newterm{managed type}\footnote{
    19351940A managed type affects the runtime environment versus a self-contained type.}: a type requiring a non-trivial constructor or destructor, or with a field of a managed type.
     
    19391944\CFA also provides syntax for \newterm{initialization} and \newterm{copy}:
    19401945\begin{cfa}
    1941 void ?{}( VLA & vla, int size, char fill ) with ( vla ) {       $\C{// initialization}$
     1946void ?{}( VLA & vla, int size, char fill ) with ( vla ) {  $\C{// initialization}$
    19421947        len = size;  data = alloc( len, fill );
    19431948}
    1944 void ?{}( VLA & vla, VLA other ) {                      $\C{// copy}$
     1949void ?{}( VLA & vla, VLA other ) {                      $\C{// copy, shallow}$
    19451950        vla.len = other.len;  vla.data = other.data;
    19461951}
    19471952\end{cfa}
     1953(Note, the example is purposely kept simple by using shallow-copy semantics.)
    19481954An initialization constructor-call has the same syntax as a C initializer, except the initialization values are passed as arguments to a matching constructor (number and type of paremeters).
    19491955\begin{cfa}
     
    19591965\begin{cfa}
    19601966{
    1961         VLA x,  y = { 20, 0x01 },  z = y;
    1962         // implicit:  ?{}( x );  ?{}( y, 20, 0x01 );  ?{}( z, y ); z points to y
     1967        VLA  x,            y = { 20, 0x01 },     z = y; $\C{// z points to y}$
     1968        //      ?{}( x );  ?{}( y, 20, 0x01 );  ?{}( z, y );
    19631969        ^x{};                                                                   $\C{// deallocate x}$
    19641970        x{};                                                                    $\C{// reallocate x}$
     
    19671973        y{ x };                                                                 $\C{// reallocate y, points to x}$
    19681974        x{};                                                                    $\C{// reallocate x, not pointing to y}$
    1969         // implicit:  ^?{}(z);  ^?{}(y);  ^?{}(x);
     1975        // ^?{}(z);  ^?{}(y);  ^?{}(x);
    19701976}
    19711977\end{cfa}
     
    19982004C already includes limited polymorphism for literals -- @0@ can be either an integer or a pointer literal, depending on context, while the syntactic forms of literals of the various integer and float types are very similar, differing from each other only in suffix.
    19992005In keeping with the general \CFA approach of adding features while respecting the ``C-style'' of doing things, C's polymorphic constants and typed literal syntax are extended to interoperate with user-defined types, while maintaining a backwards-compatible semantics.
    2000 A trivial example is allowing the underscore to separate prefixes, digits, and suffixes in all \CFA constants, as in Ada, \eg @0x`_`1.ffff`_`ffff`_`p`_`128`_`l@.
     2006A trivial example is allowing the underscore, as in Ada, to separate prefixes, digits, and suffixes in all \CFA constants, \eg @0x`_`1.ffff`_`ffff`_`p`_`128`_`l@.
     2007
     2008
     2009\subsection{Integral Suffixes}
     2010
     2011Additional integral suffixes are added to cover all the integral types and lengths.
     2012\begin{cquote}
     2013\lstDeleteShortInline@%
     2014\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
     2015\begin{cfa}
     201620`_hh`     // signed char
     201721`_hhu`   // unsigned char
     201822`_h`       // signed short int
     201923`_uh`     // unsigned short int
     202024`z`         // size_t
     2021\end{cfa}
     2022&
     2023\begin{cfa}
     202420`_L8`      // int8_t
     202521`_ul8`     // uint8_t
     202622`_l16`     // int16_t
     202723`_ul16`   // uint16_t
     202824`_l32`     // int32_t
     2029\end{cfa}
     2030&
     2031\begin{cfa}
     203225`_ul32`      // uint32_t
     203326`_l64`        // int64_t
     203427`_l64u`      // uint64_t
     203526`_L128`     // int128
     203627`_L128u`   // unsigned int128
     2037\end{cfa}
     2038\end{tabular}
     2039\lstMakeShortInline@%
     2040\end{cquote}
    20012041
    20022042
     
    20152055
    20162056
    2017 \subsection{Integral Suffixes}
    2018 
    2019 Additional integral suffixes are added to cover all the integral types and lengths.
    2020 \begin{cquote}
     2057\subsection{User Literals}
     2058
     2059For readability, it is useful to associate units to scale literals, \eg weight (stone, pound, kilogram) or time (seconds, minutes, hours).
     2060The left of Figure~\ref{f:UserLiteral} shows the \CFA alternative call-syntax (literal argument before function name), using the backquote, to convert basic literals into user literals.
     2061The backquote is a small character, making the unit (function name) predominate.
     2062For examples, the multi-precision integers in Section~\ref{s:MultiPrecisionIntegers} make use of user literals:
     2063{\lstset{language=CFA,moredelim=**[is][\color{red}]{|}{|},deletedelim=**[is][]{`}{`}}
     2064\begin{cfa}
     2065y = 9223372036854775807L|`mp| * 18446744073709551615UL|`mp|;
     2066y = "12345678901234567890123456789"|`mp| + "12345678901234567890123456789"|`mp|;
     2067\end{cfa}
     2068Because \CFA uses a standard function, all types and literals are applicable, as well as overloading and conversions.
     2069}%
     2070
     2071The right of Figure~\ref{f:UserLiteral} shows the equivalent \CC version using the underscore for the call-syntax.
     2072However, \CC restricts the types, \eg @unsigned long long int@ and @long double@ to represent integral and floating literals.
     2073After which, user literals must match (no conversions);
     2074hence, it is necessary to overload the unit with all appropriate types.
     2075Finally, the use of the single quote as a separator is restricted to digits, precluding its use in the literal prefix or suffix, and causes problems with most IDEs, which must be extended to deal with this alternate use of the single quote.
     2076
     2077\begin{figure}
     2078\centering
     2079\lstset{language=CFA,moredelim=**[is][\color{red}]{|}{|},deletedelim=**[is][]{`}{`}}
    20212080\lstDeleteShortInline@%
    2022 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
    2023 \begin{cfa}
    2024 20`_hh`     // signed char
    2025 21`_hhu`   // unsigned char
    2026 22`_h`       // signed short int
    2027 23`_uh`     // unsigned short int
    2028 24`z`         // size_t
    2029 \end{cfa}
    2030 &
    2031 \begin{cfa}
    2032 20`_L8`      // int8_t
    2033 21`_ul8`     // uint8_t
    2034 22`_l16`     // int16_t
    2035 23`_ul16`   // uint16_t
    2036 24`_l32`     // int32_t
    2037 \end{cfa}
    2038 &
    2039 \begin{cfa}
    2040 25`_ul32`      // uint32_t
    2041 26`_l64`        // int64_t
    2042 27`_l64u`      // uint64_t
    2043 26`_L128`     // int128
    2044 27`_L128u`   // unsigned int128
     2081\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
     2082\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{\CC}}      \\
     2083\begin{cfa}
     2084struct W {
     2085        double stones;
     2086};
     2087void ?{}( W & w ) { w.stones = 0; }
     2088void ?{}( W & w, double w ) { w.stones = w; }
     2089W ?+?( W l, W r ) {
     2090        return (W){ l.stones + r.stones };
     2091}
     2092W |?`st|( double w ) { return (W){ w }; }
     2093W |?`lb|( double w ) { return (W){ w / 14.0 }; }
     2094W |?`kg|( double w ) { return (W) { w * 0.16 }; }
     2095
     2096
     2097
     2098int main() {
     2099        W w, heavy = { 20 };
     2100        w = 155|`lb|;
     2101        w = 0b_1111|`st|;
     2102        w = 0_233|`lb|;
     2103        w = 0x_9b_u|`kg|;
     2104        w = 5.5|`st| + 8|`kg| + 25.01|`lb| + heavy;
     2105}
     2106\end{cfa}
     2107&
     2108\begin{cfa}
     2109struct W {
     2110    double stones;
     2111    W() { stones = 0.0; }
     2112    W( double w ) { stones = w; }
     2113};
     2114W operator+( W l, W r ) {
     2115        return W( l.stones + r.stones );
     2116}
     2117W |operator"" _st|( unsigned long long int w ) { return W( w ); }
     2118W |operator"" _lb|( unsigned long long int w ) { return W( w / 14.0 ); }
     2119W |operator"" _kg|( unsigned long long int w ) { return W( w * 0.16 ); }
     2120W |operator"" _st|( long double w ) { return W( w ); }
     2121W |operator"" _lb|( long double w ) { return W( w / 14.0 ); }
     2122W |operator"" _kg|( long double w ) { return W( w * 0.16 ); }
     2123int main() {
     2124        W w, heavy = { 20 };
     2125        w = 155|_lb|;
     2126        w = 0b1111|_lb|;       // error, binary unsupported
     2127        w = 0${\color{red}'}$233|_lb|;          // quote separator
     2128        w = 0x9b|_kg|;
     2129        w = 5.5d|_st| + 8|_kg| + 25.01|_lb| + heavy;
     2130}
    20452131\end{cfa}
    20462132\end{tabular}
    20472133\lstMakeShortInline@%
    2048 \end{cquote}
    2049 
    2050 
    2051 \subsection{Units}
    2052 
    2053 Alternative call syntax (literal argument before routine name) to convert basic literals into user literals.
    2054 
    2055 {\lstset{language=CFA,moredelim=**[is][\color{red}]{|}{|},deletedelim=**[is][]{`}{`}}
    2056 \begin{cfa}
    2057 struct Weight { double stones; };
    2058 void ?{}( Weight & w ) { w.stones = 0; }        $\C{// operations}$
    2059 void ?{}( Weight & w, double w ) { w.stones = w; }
    2060 Weight ?+?( Weight l, Weight r ) { return (Weight){ l.stones + r.stones }; }
    2061 
    2062 Weight |?`st|( double w ) { return (Weight){ w }; } $\C{// backquote for units}$
    2063 Weight |?`lb|( double w ) { return (Weight){ w / 14.0 }; }
    2064 Weight |?`kg|( double w ) { return (Weight) { w * 0.1575}; }
    2065 
    2066 int main() {
    2067         Weight w, heavy = { 20 };                               $\C{// 20 stone}$
    2068         w = 155|`lb|;
    2069         w = 0x_9b_u|`lb|;                                               $\C{// hexadecimal unsigned weight (155)}$
    2070         w = 0_233|`lb|;                                                 $\C{// octal weight (155)}$
    2071         w = 5|`st| + 8|`kg| + 25|`lb| + heavy;
    2072 }
    2073 \end{cfa}
    2074 }%
     2134\caption{User Literal}
     2135\label{f:UserLiteral}
     2136\end{figure}
    20752137
    20762138
     
    20822144In many cases, the interface is an inline wrapper providing overloading during compilation but zero cost at runtime.
    20832145The following sections give a glimpse of the interface reduction to many C libraries.
    2084 In many cases, @signed@/@unsigned@ @char@, @short@, and @_Complex@ routines are available (but not shown) to ensure expression computations remain in a single type, as conversions can distort results.
     2146In many cases, @signed@/@unsigned@ @char@, @short@, and @_Complex@ functions are available (but not shown) to ensure expression computations remain in a single type, as conversions can distort results.
    20852147
    20862148
     
    21102172\begin{cquote}
    21112173\lstDeleteShortInline@%
    2112 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
    2113 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
     2174\lstset{basicstyle=\linespread{0.9}\sf\small}
     2175\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{0.5\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
     2176\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{0.5\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}  & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
    21142177\begin{cfa}
    21152178MIN
    2116 
    21172179MAX
    2118 
    21192180PI
    21202181E
     
    21222183&
    21232184\begin{cfa}
    2124 SCHAR_MIN, CHAR_MIN, SHRT_MIN, INT_MIN, LONG_MIN, LLONG_MIN,
    2125                 FLT_MIN, DBL_MIN, LDBL_MIN
    2126 SCHAR_MAX, UCHAR_MAX, SHRT_MAX, INT_MAX, LONG_MAX, LLONG_MAX,
    2127                  FLT_MAX, DBL_MAX, LDBL_MAX
     2185SCHAR_MIN, CHAR_MIN, SHRT_MIN, INT_MIN, LONG_MIN, LLONG_MIN, FLT_MIN, DBL_MIN, LDBL_MIN
     2186SCHAR_MAX, UCHAR_MAX, SHRT_MAX, INT_MAX, LONG_MAX, LLONG_MAX, FLT_MAX, DBL_MAX, LDBL_MAX
    21282187M_PI, M_PIl
    21292188M_E, M_El
     
    21362195\subsection{Math}
    21372196
    2138 C library @math.h@ provides many mathematical routines.
    2139 \CFA routine overloading is used to condense these mathematical routines, \eg:
     2197C library @math.h@ provides many mathematical functions.
     2198\CFA function overloading is used to condense these mathematical functions, \eg:
    21402199\begin{cquote}
    21412200\lstDeleteShortInline@%
     
    21562215\lstMakeShortInline@%
    21572216\end{cquote}
    2158 The result is a significant reduction in names to access math routines, \eg:
     2217The result is a significant reduction in names to access math functions, \eg:
    21592218\begin{cquote}
    21602219\lstDeleteShortInline@%
     
    21752234\lstMakeShortInline@%
    21762235\end{cquote}
    2177 While \Celeven has type-generic math~\cite[\S~7.25]{C11} in @tgmath.h@ to provide a similar mechanism, these macros are limited, matching a routine name with a single set of floating type(s).
     2236While \Celeven has type-generic math~\cite[\S~7.25]{C11} in @tgmath.h@ to provide a similar mechanism, these macros are limited, matching a function name with a single set of floating type(s).
    21782237For example, it is impossible to overload @atan@ for both one and two arguments;
    21792238instead the names @atan@ and @atan2@ are required (see Section~\ref{s:NameOverloading}).
    2180 The key observation is that only a restricted set of type-generic macros are provided for a limited set of routine names, which do not generalize across the type system, as in \CFA.
     2239The key observation is that only a restricted set of type-generic macros are provided for a limited set of function names, which do not generalize across the type system, as in \CFA.
    21812240
    21822241
    21832242\subsection{Standard}
    21842243
    2185 C library @stdlib.h@ provides many general routines.
    2186 \CFA routine overloading is used to condense these utility routines, \eg:
     2244C library @stdlib.h@ provides many general functions.
     2245\CFA function overloading is used to condense these utility functions, \eg:
    21872246\begin{cquote}
    21882247\lstDeleteShortInline@%
     
    22032262\lstMakeShortInline@%
    22042263\end{cquote}
    2205 The result is a significant reduction in names to access utility routines, \eg:
     2264The result is a significant reduction in names to access utility functions, \eg:
    22062265\begin{cquote}
    22072266\lstDeleteShortInline@%
     
    22222281\lstMakeShortInline@%
    22232282\end{cquote}
    2224 In additon, there are polymorphic routines, like @min@ and @max@, which work on any type with operators @?<?@ or @?>?@.
     2283In additon, there are polymorphic functions, like @min@ and @max@, which work on any type with operators @?<?@ or @?>?@.
    22252284
    22262285The following shows one example where \CFA \emph{extends} an existing standard C interface to reduce complexity and provide safety.
     
    22392298An array may be filled, resized, or aligned.
    22402299\end{description}
    2241 Table~\ref{t:StorageManagementOperations} shows the capabilities provided by C/\Celeven allocation-routines and how all the capabilities can be combined into two \CFA routines.
    2242 
    2243 \CFA storage-management routines extend the C equivalents by overloading, providing shallow type-safety, and removing the need to specify the base allocation-size.
    2244 The following example contrasts \CFA and C storage-allocation operation performing the same operations with the same type safety:
    2245 \begin{cquote}
    2246 \begin{cfa}[aboveskip=0pt]
    2247 size_t  dim = 10;                                                       $\C{// array dimension}$
    2248 char fill = '\xff';                                                     $\C{// initialization fill value}$
    2249 int * ip;
    2250 \end{cfa}
    2251 \lstDeleteShortInline@%
    2252 \begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
    2253 \multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
    2254 \begin{cfa}
    2255 ip = alloc();
    2256 ip = alloc( fill );
    2257 ip = alloc( dim );
    2258 ip = alloc( dim, fill );
    2259 ip = alloc( ip, 2 * dim );
    2260 ip = alloc( ip, 4 * dim, fill );
    2261 
    2262 ip = align_alloc( 16 );
    2263 ip = align_alloc( 16, fill );
    2264 ip = align_alloc( 16, dim );
    2265 ip = align_alloc( 16, dim, fill );
    2266 \end{cfa}
    2267 &
    2268 \begin{cfa}
    2269 ip = (int *)malloc( sizeof( int ) );
    2270 ip = (int *)malloc( sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, sizeof( int ) );
    2271 ip = (int *)malloc( dim * sizeof( int ) );
    2272 ip = (int *)malloc( sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, dim * sizeof( int ) );
    2273 ip = (int *)realloc( ip, 2 * dim * sizeof( int ) );
    2274 ip = (int *)realloc( ip, 4 * dim * sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, 4 * dim * sizeof( int ) );
    2275 
    2276 ip = memalign( 16, sizeof( int ) );
    2277 ip = memalign( 16, sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, sizeof( int ) );
    2278 ip = memalign( 16, dim * sizeof( int ) );
    2279 ip = memalign( 16, dim * sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, dim * sizeof( int ) );
    2280 \end{cfa}
    2281 \end{tabular}
    2282 \lstMakeShortInline@%
    2283 \end{cquote}
    2284 Variadic @new@ (see Section~\ref{sec:variadic-tuples}) cannot support the same overloading because extra parameters are for initialization.
    2285 Hence, there are @new@ and @anew@ routines for single and array variables, and the fill value is the arguments to the constructor, \eg:
    2286 \begin{cfa}
    2287 struct S { int i, j; };
    2288 void ?{}( S & s, int i, int j ) { s.i = i; s.j = j; }
    2289 S * s = new( 2, 3 );                                            $\C{// allocate storage and run constructor}$
    2290 S * as = anew( dim, 2, 3 );                                     $\C{// each array element initialized to 2, 3}$
    2291 \end{cfa}
    2292 Note, \CC can only initialization array elements via the default constructor.
    2293 
    2294 Finally, the \CFA memory-allocator has \newterm{sticky properties} for dynamic storage: fill and alignment are remembered with an object's storage in the heap.
    2295 When a @realloc@ is performed, the sticky properties are respected, so that new storage is correctly aligned and initialized with the fill character.
     2300Table~\ref{t:StorageManagementOperations} shows the capabilities provided by C/\Celeven allocation-functions and how all the capabilities can be combined into two \CFA functions.
     2301\CFA storage-management functions extend the C equivalents by overloading, providing shallow type-safety, and removing the need to specify the base allocation-size.
     2302Figure~\ref{f:StorageAllocation} contrasts \CFA and C storage-allocation operation performing the same operations with the same type safety.
    22962303
    22972304\begin{table}
     
    23192326\end{table}
    23202327
     2328\begin{figure}
     2329\centering
     2330\begin{cquote}
     2331\begin{cfa}[aboveskip=0pt]
     2332size_t  dim = 10;                                                       $\C{// array dimension}$
     2333char fill = '\xff';                                                     $\C{// initialization fill value}$
     2334int * ip;
     2335\end{cfa}
     2336\lstDeleteShortInline@%
     2337\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}l@{}}
     2338\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{\parindentlnth}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}     & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
     2339\begin{cfa}
     2340ip = alloc();
     2341ip = alloc( fill );
     2342ip = alloc( dim );
     2343ip = alloc( dim, fill );
     2344ip = alloc( ip, 2 * dim );
     2345ip = alloc( ip, 4 * dim, fill );
     2346
     2347ip = align_alloc( 16 );
     2348ip = align_alloc( 16, fill );
     2349ip = align_alloc( 16, dim );
     2350ip = align_alloc( 16, dim, fill );
     2351\end{cfa}
     2352&
     2353\begin{cfa}
     2354ip = (int *)malloc( sizeof( int ) );
     2355ip = (int *)malloc( sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, sizeof( int ) );
     2356ip = (int *)malloc( dim * sizeof( int ) );
     2357ip = (int *)malloc( sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, dim * sizeof( int ) );
     2358ip = (int *)realloc( ip, 2 * dim * sizeof( int ) );
     2359ip = (int *)realloc( ip, 4 * dim * sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, 4 * dim * sizeof( int ) );
     2360
     2361ip = memalign( 16, sizeof( int ) );
     2362ip = memalign( 16, sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, sizeof( int ) );
     2363ip = memalign( 16, dim * sizeof( int ) );
     2364ip = memalign( 16, dim * sizeof( int ) ); memset( ip, fill, dim * sizeof( int ) );
     2365\end{cfa}
     2366\end{tabular}
     2367\lstMakeShortInline@%
     2368\end{cquote}
     2369\caption{\CFA versus C Storage-Allocation}
     2370\label{f:StorageAllocation}
     2371\end{figure}
     2372
     2373Variadic @new@ (see Section~\ref{sec:variadic-tuples}) cannot support the same overloading because extra parameters are for initialization.
     2374Hence, there are @new@ and @anew@ functions for single and array variables, and the fill value is the arguments to the constructor, \eg:
     2375\begin{cfa}
     2376struct S { int i, j; };
     2377void ?{}( S & s, int i, int j ) { s.i = i; s.j = j; }
     2378S * s = new( 2, 3 );                                            $\C{// allocate storage and run constructor}$
     2379S * as = anew( dim, 2, 3 );                                     $\C{// each array element initialized to 2, 3}$
     2380\end{cfa}
     2381Note, \CC can only initialization array elements via the default constructor.
     2382
     2383Finally, the \CFA memory-allocator has \newterm{sticky properties} for dynamic storage: fill and alignment are remembered with an object's storage in the heap.
     2384When a @realloc@ is performed, the sticky properties are respected, so that new storage is correctly aligned and initialized with the fill character.
     2385
    23212386
    23222387\subsection{I/O}
     
    24062471}%
    24072472\end{itemize}
    2408 There are routines to set and get the separator string, and manipulators to toggle separation on and off in the middle of output.
     2473There are functions to set and get the separator string, and manipulators to toggle separation on and off in the middle of output.
    24092474
    24102475
     
    24132478
    24142479\CFA has an interface to the GMP multi-precision signed-integers~\cite{GMP}, similar to the \CC interface provided by GMP.
    2415 The \CFA interface wraps GMP routines into operator routines to make programming with multi-precision integers identical to using fixed-sized integers.
     2480The \CFA interface wraps GMP functions into operator functions to make programming with multi-precision integers identical to using fixed-sized integers.
    24162481The \CFA type name for multi-precision signed-integers is @Int@ and the header file is @gmp@.
    24172482The following multi-precision factorial programs contrast using GMP with the \CFA and C interfaces.
     
    24582523Since all these languages share a subset essentially comprising standard C, maximal-performance benchmarks would show little runtime variance, other than in length and clarity of source code.
    24592524A more illustrative benchmark measures the costs of idiomatic usage of each language's features.
    2460 Figure~\ref{fig:BenchmarkTest} shows the \CFA benchmark tests for a generic stack based on a singly linked-list, a generic pair-data-structure, and a variadic @print@ routine similar to that in Section~\ref{sec:variadic-tuples}.
     2525Figure~\ref{fig:BenchmarkTest} shows the \CFA benchmark tests for a generic stack based on a singly linked-list, a generic pair-data-structure, and a variadic @print@ function similar to that in Section~\ref{sec:variadic-tuples}.
    24612526The benchmark test is similar for C and \CC.
    24622527The experiment uses element types @int@ and @pair(_Bool, char)@, and pushes $N=40M$ elements on a generic stack, copies the stack, clears one of the stacks, finds the maximum value in the other stack, and prints $N/2$ (to reduce graph height) constants.
     
    24722537        TIMED( "copy_int", t = s; )
    24732538        TIMED( "clear_int", clear( s ); )
    2474         REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_int", N, int x = pop( t ); max = max( x, max ); )
     2539        REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_int", N, int v = pop( t ); max = max( v, max ); )
    24752540        REPEAT_TIMED( "print_int", N/2, out | val | ':' | val | endl; )
    24762541
     
    24812546        TIMED( "copy_pair", t = s; )
    24822547        TIMED( "clear_pair", clear( s ); )
    2483         REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_pair", N, pair(_Bool, char) x = pop( t ); max = max( x, max ); )
     2548        REPEAT_TIMED( "pop_pair", N, pair(_Bool, char) v = pop( t ); max = max( v, max ); )
    24842549        REPEAT_TIMED( "print_pair", N/2, out | val | ':' | val | endl; )
    24852550}
     
    25532618\CC is the most similar language to \CFA;
    25542619both are extensions to C with source and runtime backwards compatibility.
    2555 The fundamental difference is in their engineering approach to C compatibility and programmer expectation.
    2556 While \CC provides good backwards compatibility with C, it has a steep learning curve for many of its extensions.
     2620The fundamental difference is the engineering approach to maintain C compatibility and programmer expectation.
     2621While \CC provides good compatibility with C, it has a steep learning curve for many of its extensions.
    25572622For example, polymorphism is provided via three disjoint mechanisms: overloading, inheritance, and templates.
    25582623The overloading is restricted because resolution does not use the return type, inheritance requires learning object-oriented programming and coping with a restricted nominal-inheritance hierarchy, templates cannot be separately compiled resulting in compilation/code bloat and poor error messages, and determining how these mechanisms interact and which to use is confusing.
    25592624In contrast, \CFA has a single facility for polymorphic code supporting type-safe separate-compilation of polymorphic functions and generic (opaque) types, which uniformly leverage the C procedural paradigm.
    2560 The key mechanism to support separate compilation is \CFA's \emph{explicit} use of assumed properties for a type.
    2561 Until \CC concepts~\cite{C++Concepts} are standardized (anticipated for \CCtwenty), \CC provides no way to specify the requirements of a generic function in code beyond compilation errors during template expansion;
     2625The key mechanism to support separate compilation is \CFA's \emph{explicit} use of assumed type properties.
     2626Until \CC concepts~\cite{C++Concepts} are standardized (anticipated for \CCtwenty), \CC provides no way to specify the requirements of a generic function beyond compilation errors during template expansion;
    25622627furthermore, \CC concepts are restricted to template polymorphism.
    25632628
     
    26102675
    26112676
     2677\subsection{Control Structures / Declarations / Literals}
     2678
     2679
    26122680\section{Conclusion and Future Work}
    26132681
     
    26692737        stack_node(T) ** crnt = &s.head;
    26702738        for ( stack_node(T) * next = t.head; next; next = next->next ) {
    2671                 *crnt = malloc(){ next->value };
     2739                stack_node(T) * new_node = ((stack_node(T)*)malloc());
     2740                (*new_node){ next->value }; /***/
     2741                *crnt = new_node;
    26722742                stack_node(T) * acrnt = *crnt;
    26732743                crnt = &acrnt->next;
     
    26842754forall(otype T) _Bool empty( const stack(T) & s ) { return s.head == 0; }
    26852755forall(otype T) void push( stack(T) & s, T value ) {
    2686         s.head = malloc(){ value, s.head };
     2756        stack_node(T) * new_node = ((stack_node(T)*)malloc());
     2757        (*new_node){ value, s.head }; /***/
     2758        s.head = new_node;
    26872759}
    26882760forall(otype T) T pop( stack(T) & s ) {
    26892761        stack_node(T) * n = s.head;
    26902762        s.head = n->next;
    2691         T x = n->value;
    2692         ^n{};
    2693         free( n );
    2694         return x;
     2763        T v = n->value;
     2764        delete( n );
     2765        return v;
    26952766}
    26962767forall(otype T) void clear( stack(T) & s ) {
     
    28482919
    28492920
    2850 \begin{comment}
    2851 \subsubsection{bench.h}
    2852 (\texttt{bench.hpp} is similar.)
    2853 
    2854 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/bench.h}
    2855 
    2856 \subsection{C}
    2857 
    2858 \subsubsection{c-stack.h} ~
    2859 
    2860 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/c-stack.h}
    2861 
    2862 \subsubsection{c-stack.c} ~
    2863 
    2864 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/c-stack.c}
    2865 
    2866 \subsubsection{c-pair.h} ~
    2867 
    2868 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/c-pair.h}
    2869 
    2870 \subsubsection{c-pair.c} ~
    2871 
    2872 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/c-pair.c}
    2873 
    2874 \subsubsection{c-print.h} ~
    2875 
    2876 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/c-print.h}
    2877 
    2878 \subsubsection{c-print.c} ~
    2879 
    2880 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/c-print.c}
    2881 
    2882 \subsubsection{c-bench.c} ~
    2883 
    2884 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/c-bench.c}
    2885 
    2886 \subsection{\CFA}
    2887 
    2888 \subsubsection{cfa-stack.h} ~
    2889 
    2890 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/cfa-stack.h}
    2891 
    2892 \subsubsection{cfa-stack.c} ~
    2893 
    2894 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/cfa-stack.c}
    2895 
    2896 \subsubsection{cfa-print.h} ~
    2897 
    2898 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/cfa-print.h}
    2899 
    2900 \subsubsection{cfa-print.c} ~
    2901 
    2902 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/cfa-print.c}
    2903 
    2904 \subsubsection{cfa-bench.c} ~
    2905 
    2906 \lstinputlisting{evaluation/cfa-bench.c}
    2907 
    2908 \subsection{\CC}
    2909 
    2910 \subsubsection{cpp-stack.hpp} ~
    2911 
    2912 \lstinputlisting[language=c++]{evaluation/cpp-stack.hpp}
    2913 
    2914 \subsubsection{cpp-print.hpp} ~
    2915 
    2916 \lstinputlisting[language=c++]{evaluation/cpp-print.hpp}
    2917 
    2918 \subsubsection{cpp-bench.cpp} ~
    2919 
    2920 \lstinputlisting[language=c++]{evaluation/cpp-bench.cpp}
    2921 
    2922 \subsection{\CCV}
    2923 
    2924 \subsubsection{object.hpp} ~
    2925 
    2926 \lstinputlisting[language=c++]{evaluation/object.hpp}
    2927 
    2928 \subsubsection{cpp-vstack.hpp} ~
    2929 
    2930 \lstinputlisting[language=c++]{evaluation/cpp-vstack.hpp}
    2931 
    2932 \subsubsection{cpp-vstack.cpp} ~
    2933 
    2934 \lstinputlisting[language=c++]{evaluation/cpp-vstack.cpp}
    2935 
    2936 \subsubsection{cpp-vprint.hpp} ~
    2937 
    2938 \lstinputlisting[language=c++]{evaluation/cpp-vprint.hpp}
    2939 
    2940 \subsubsection{cpp-vbench.cpp} ~
    2941 
    2942 \lstinputlisting[language=c++]{evaluation/cpp-vbench.cpp}
    2943 \end{comment}
    2944 
    29452921\end{document}
    29462922
  • src/tests/.expect/literals.x64.txt

    r0a2168f rea46db7  
    522522signed int __main__Fi___1(){
    523523    __attribute__ ((unused)) signed int ___retval_main__i_1;
     524    ((void)0b01101011);
     525    ((void)0b01101011u);
     526    ((void)0b01101011l);
     527    ((void)0b01101011ll);
     528    ((void)0b01101011ul);
     529    ((void)0b01101011lu);
     530    ((void)0b01101011ull);
     531    ((void)0b01101011llu);
     532    ((void)(+0b01101011));
     533    ((void)(+0b01101011u));
     534    ((void)(+0b01101011l));
     535    ((void)(+0b01101011ll));
     536    ((void)(+0b01101011ul));
     537    ((void)(+0b01101011lu));
     538    ((void)(+0b01101011ull));
     539    ((void)(+0b01101011llu));
     540    ((void)(-0b01101011));
     541    ((void)(-0b01101011u));
     542    ((void)(-0b01101011l));
     543    ((void)(-0b01101011ll));
     544    ((void)(-0b01101011ul));
     545    ((void)(-0b01101011lu));
     546    ((void)(-0b01101011ull));
     547    ((void)(-0b01101011llu));
    524548    ((void)01234567);
    525549    ((void)01234567u);
     
    10171041    ((void)(-0X0123456789.0123456789P-09F));
    10181042    ((void)(-0X0123456789.0123456789P-09L));
     1043    ((void)((signed char )0b01101011));
     1044    ((void)((signed short int )0b01101011));
     1045    ((void)((signed int )0b01101011));
     1046    ((void)((signed long int )0b01101011));
     1047    ((void)((__int128 )0b01101011));
     1048    ((void)((unsigned char )0b01101011u));
     1049    ((void)((signed short int )0b01101011u));
     1050    ((void)((unsigned int )0b01101011u));
     1051    ((void)((signed long int )0b01101011u));
     1052    ((void)((__int128 )0b01101011u));
     1053    ((void)(+((signed int )((signed char )0b01101011))));
     1054    ((void)(+((signed int )((signed short int )0b01101011))));
     1055    ((void)(+((signed int )0b01101011)));
     1056    ((void)(+((signed long int )0b01101011)));
     1057    ((void)(+((float )((__int128 )0b01101011))));
     1058    ((void)(+((signed int )((unsigned char )0b01101011u))));
     1059    ((void)(+((signed int )((signed short int )0b01101011u))));
     1060    ((void)(+((unsigned int )0b01101011u)));
     1061    ((void)(+((signed long int )0b01101011u)));
     1062    ((void)(+((float )((__int128 )0b01101011u))));
     1063    ((void)(-((signed int )((signed char )0b01101011))));
     1064    ((void)(-((signed int )((signed short int )0b01101011))));
     1065    ((void)(-((signed int )0b01101011)));
     1066    ((void)(-((signed long int )0b01101011)));
     1067    ((void)(-((float )((__int128 )0b01101011))));
     1068    ((void)(-((signed int )((unsigned char )0b01101011u))));
     1069    ((void)(-((signed int )((signed short int )0b01101011u))));
     1070    ((void)(-((unsigned int )0b01101011u)));
     1071    ((void)(-((signed long int )0b01101011u)));
     1072    ((void)(-((float )((__int128 )0b01101011u))));
    10191073    ((void)((signed char )01234567));
    10201074    ((void)((signed short int )01234567));
  • src/tests/.expect/user_literals.txt

    r0a2168f rea46db7  
    1111.0714285714286
    2 11.07225
     215
    3311.0714285714286
     424.8
     511.248
    4611.0714285714286
    5 11.0714285714286
    6 22.0457142857143
     728.0657142857143
    78secs 1
    89secs 23
  • src/tests/literals.c

    r0a2168f rea46db7  
    1010// Created On       : Sat Sep  9 16:34:38 2017
    1111// Last Modified By : Peter A. Buhr
    12 // Last Modified On : Mon Sep 25 20:26:00 2017
    13 // Update Count     : 132
     12// Last Modified On : Sun Mar  4 10:41:31 2018
     13// Update Count     : 134
    1414//
    1515
     
    3131// integer literals
    3232
     33        // binary
     34         0b01101011;   0b01101011u;   0b01101011l;   0b01101011ll;   0b01101011ul;   0b01101011lu;   0b01101011ull;   0b01101011llu;
     35        +0b01101011;  +0b01101011u;  +0b01101011l;  +0b01101011ll;  +0b01101011ul;  +0b01101011lu;  +0b01101011ull;  +0b01101011llu;
     36        -0b01101011;  -0b01101011u;  -0b01101011l;  -0b01101011ll;  -0b01101011ul;  -0b01101011lu;  -0b01101011ull;  -0b01101011llu;
     37
    3338        // octal
    3439         01234567;   01234567u;   01234567l;   01234567ll;   01234567ul;   01234567lu;   01234567ull;   01234567llu;
     
    148153#ifdef __CFA__
    149154// fixed-size length
     155
     156        // binary
     157         0b01101011_l8;   0b01101011_l16;   0b01101011_l32;   0b01101011_l64;   0b01101011_l128;   0b01101011_l8u;   0b01101011_ul16;   0b01101011_l32u;   0b01101011_ul64;   0b01101011_ul128;
     158        +0b01101011_l8;  +0b01101011_l16;  +0b01101011_l32;  +0b01101011_l64;  +0b01101011_l128;  +0b01101011_l8u;  +0b01101011_ul16;  +0b01101011_l32u;  +0b01101011_ul64;  +0b01101011_ul128;
     159        -0b01101011_l8;  -0b01101011_l16;  -0b01101011_l32;  -0b01101011_l64;  -0b01101011_l128;  -0b01101011_l8u;  -0b01101011_ul16;  -0b01101011_l32u;  -0b01101011_ul64;  -0b01101011_ul128;
    150160
    151161        // octal
  • src/tests/user_literals.c

    r0a2168f rea46db7  
    1010// Created On       : Wed Sep  6 21:40:50 2017
    1111// Last Modified By : Peter A. Buhr
    12 // Last Modified On : Thu Dec  7 09:12:36 2017
    13 // Update Count     : 50
     12// Last Modified On : Sun Mar  4 11:14:02 2018
     13// Update Count     : 52
    1414//
    1515
     
    3131
    3232
    33 struct Weight {
    34         double stones;
    35 };
    36 void ?{}( Weight & w ) { w.stones = 0; }                                // operations
     33struct Weight { double stones; };
     34void ?{}( Weight & w ) { w.stones = 0; }
    3735void ?{}( Weight & w, double w ) { w.stones = w; }
    38 Weight ?+?( Weight l, Weight r ) { return (Weight){ l.stones + r.stones }; }
     36Weight ?+?( Weight l, Weight r ) {
     37        return (Weight){ l.stones + r.stones };
     38}
    3939ofstream & ?|?( ofstream & os, Weight w ) { return os | w.stones; }
    4040
    4141Weight ?`st( double w ) { return (Weight){ w }; }               // backquote for user literals
    4242Weight ?`lb( double w ) { return (Weight){ w / 14.0 }; }
    43 Weight ?`kg( double w ) { return (Weight) { w * 0.1575}; }
    44 
     43Weight ?`kg( double w ) { return (Weight) { w * 0.16 }; }
    4544
    4645int main() {
    47         Weight w, hw = { 14 };                                                          // 14 stone
    48         w = 11`st + 1`lb;
     46        Weight w, heavy = { 20 };                                                       // 20 stone
     47        w = 155`lb;
     48        sout | w | endl;
     49        w = 0b_1111`st;
     50        sout | w | endl;
     51        w = 0_233`lb;                                                                           // octal weight (155)
     52        sout | w | endl;
     53        w = 0x_9b_u`kg;
    4954        sout | w | endl;
    5055        w = 70.3`kg;
    5156        sout | w | endl;
    52         w = 155`lb;
     57        w = 11`st + 1`lb;
    5358        sout | w | endl;
    54         w = 0x_9b_u`lb;                                                                         // hexadecimal unsigned weight (155)
    55         sout | w | endl;
    56         w = 0_233`lb;                                                                           // octal weight (155)
    57         sout | w | endl;
    58         w = 5`st + 8`kg + 25`lb + hw;
     59        w = 5`st + 8`kg + 25`lb + heavy;
    5960        sout | w | endl;
    6061
Note: See TracChangeset for help on using the changeset viewer.