Changeset 53ba273 for doc


Ignore:
Timestamp:
Apr 6, 2016, 10:08:32 PM (8 years ago)
Author:
Peter A. Buhr <pabuhr@…>
Branches:
ADT, aaron-thesis, arm-eh, ast-experimental, cleanup-dtors, ctor, deferred_resn, demangler, enum, forall-pointer-decay, gc_noraii, jacob/cs343-translation, jenkins-sandbox, master, memory, new-ast, new-ast-unique-expr, new-env, no_list, persistent-indexer, pthread-emulation, qualifiedEnum, resolv-new, string, with_gc
Children:
3d9b5da, 78885b5
Parents:
3cfe27f
Message:

switch from std=c99 to std=gnu99, update latex macros, refrat and extend user manual, update limits/iostream/fstream, add rational numbers

Location:
doc
Files:
2 edited

Legend:

Unmodified
Added
Removed

  • doc/refrat/refrat.tex

    r3cfe27f r53ba273  
     1%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -*- Mode: Latex -*- %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
     2%%
     3%% Cforall Version 1.0.0 Copyright (C) 2016 University of Waterloo
     4%%
     5%% The contents of this file are covered under the licence agreement in the
     6%% file "LICENCE" distributed with Cforall.
     7%%
     8%% refrat.tex --
     9%%
     10%% Author           : Peter A. Buhr
     11%% Created On       : Wed Apr  6 14:52:25 2016
     12%% Last Modified By : Peter A. Buhr
     13%% Last Modified On : Wed Apr  6 21:57:27 2016
     14%% Update Count     : 2
     15%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
     16
    117% requires tex packages: texlive-base texlive-latex-base tex-common texlive-humanities texlive-latex-extra texlive-fonts-recommended
    218
    … …  
    521
    622% Latex packages used in the document.
    7 
    823\usepackage{fullpage,times}
    924\usepackage{xspace}
    … …  
    2338% Names used in the document.
    2439
    25 \newcommand{\CFA}{C$\forall$\xspace}    % set language symbolic name
     40\newcommand{\CFA}{C$\mathbf\forall$\xspace}     % set language symbolic name
    2641\newcommand{\CFL}{Cforall\xspace}               % set language text name
    2742\newcommand{\CC}{C\kern-.1em\hbox{+\kern-.25em+}\xspace} % CC symbolic name
    … …  
    151166% CFA based on ANSI C
    152167\lstdefinelanguage{CFA}[ANSI]{C}%
    153 {morekeywords={asm,_Alignas,_Alignof,_At,_Atomic,_Bool,catch,catchResume,choose,_Complex,trait,disable,dtype,enable,
    154         fallthru,finally,forall,ftype,_Generic,_Imaginary,inline,lvalue,_Noreturn,otype,restrict,_Static_assert,
    155         _Thread_local,throw,throwResume,try,},
     168{morekeywords={_Alignas,_Alignof,__alignof,__alignof__,asm,__asm,__asm__,_At,_Atomic,__attribute,__attribute__,auto,
     169    _Bool,catch,catchResume,choose,_Complex,__complex,__complex__,__const,__const__,disable,dtype,enable,__extension__,
     170        fallthru,finally,forall,ftype,_Generic,_Imaginary,inline,__label__,lvalue,_Noreturn,otype,restrict,_Static_assert,
     171        _Thread_local,throw,throwResume,trait,try,typeof,__typeof,__typeof__,},
    156172}%
    157173
    … …  
    163179xleftmargin=\parindent,
    164180escapechar=@,
     181mathescape=true,
    165182keepspaces=true,
    166183showstringspaces=false,
    167184showlines=true,
     185aboveskip=6pt,
     186belowskip=4pt,
    168187}%
    169188
    … …  
    171190% replace/adjust listings characters that look bad in sanserif
    172191\lst@CCPutMacro
    173 \lst@ProcessOther{"2D}{\lst@ttfamily{-{}}{{\ttfamily\upshape -}}} % replace minus
     192\lst@ProcessOther{"22}{\lst@ttfamily{"}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{\ttfamily\upshape "}}} % replace double quote
     193\lst@ProcessOther{"27}{\lst@ttfamily{'}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{\ttfamily\upshape '\hspace*{-2pt}}}} % replace single quote
     194\lst@ProcessOther{"2D}{\lst@ttfamily{-}{\ttfamily\upshape -}} % replace minus
    174195\lst@ProcessOther{"3C}{\lst@ttfamily{<}{\texttt{<}}} % replace less than
    175196\lst@ProcessOther{"3E}{\lst@ttfamily{<}{\texttt{>}}} % replace greater than
    176197\lst@ProcessOther{"5E}{\raisebox{0.4ex}{$\scriptstyle\land\,$}} % replace circumflex
    177 \lst@ProcessLetter{"5F}{\lst@ttfamily{\char95}{{\makebox[1.2ex][c]{\rule{1ex}{0.1ex}}}}} % replace underscore
     198\lst@ProcessOther{"5F}{\lst@ttfamily{\char95}{{\makebox[1.2ex][c]{\rule{1ex}{0.1ex}}}}} % replace underscore
     199\lst@ProcessOther{"60}{\lst@ttfamily{`}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{\ttfamily\upshape \hspace*{-2pt}`}}} % replace backquote
    178200\lst@ProcessOther{"7E}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{$\scriptstyle\sim\,$}} % replace tilde
    179201%\lst@ProcessOther{"7E}{\raisebox{-.4ex}[1ex][0pt]{\textasciitilde}} % lower tilde
    … …  
    38433865``\lstinline$Safe_pointer$ acts like a pointer to \lstinline$int$''.
    38443866\begin{lstlisting}
    3845 trait ptr_to( type P | pointer( P ), otype T ) {@\impl{ptr_to}@@\use{pointer}@
     3867trait ptr_to( otype P | pointer( P ), otype T ) {@\impl{ptr_to}@@\use{pointer}@
    38463868        lvalue T *?( P );
    38473869        lvalue T ?[?]( P, long int );
    38483870};
    3849 trait ptr_to_const( type P | pointer( P ), otype T ) {@\impl{ptr_to_const}@
     3871trait ptr_to_const( otype P | pointer( P ), otype T ) {@\impl{ptr_to_const}@
    38503872        const lvalue T *?( P );
    38513873        const lvalue T ?[?]( P, long int );@\use{pointer}@
    38523874};
    3853 trait ptr_to_volatile( type P | pointer( P ), otype T ) }@\impl{ptr_to_volatile}@
     3875trait ptr_to_volatile( otype P | pointer( P ), otype T ) }@\impl{ptr_to_volatile}@
    38543876        volatile lvalue T *?( P );
    38553877        volatile lvalue T ?[?]( P, long int );@\use{pointer}@
    38563878};
    3857 trait ptr_to_const_volatile( type P | pointer( P ), otype T ) }@\impl{ptr_to_const_volatile}@
     3879trait ptr_to_const_volatile( otype P | pointer( P ), otype T ) }@\impl{ptr_to_const_volatile}@
    38583880        const volatile lvalue T *?( P );@\use{pointer}@
    38593881        const volatile lvalue T ?[?]( P, long int );
    … …  
    38653887``\lstinline$ptr_to$'' specifications.
    38663888\begin{lstlisting}
    3867 trait m_l_ptr_to( type P | m_l_pointer( P ),@\use{m_l_pointer}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to}@ otype T | ptr_to( P, T )@\use{ptr_to}@ {
     3889trait m_l_ptr_to( otype P | m_l_pointer( P ),@\use{m_l_pointer}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to}@ otype T | ptr_to( P, T )@\use{ptr_to}@ {
    38683890        P ?=?( P *, T * );
    38693891        T * ?=?( T **, P );
    38703892};
    3871 trait m_l_ptr_to_const( type P | m_l_pointer( P ),@\use{m_l_pointer}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to_const}@ otype T | ptr_to_const( P, T )@\use{ptr_to_const}@) {
     3893trait m_l_ptr_to_const( otype P | m_l_pointer( P ),@\use{m_l_pointer}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to_const}@ otype T | ptr_to_const( P, T )@\use{ptr_to_const}@) {
    38723894        P ?=?( P *, const T * );
    38733895        const T * ?=?( const T **, P );
    38743896};
    3875 trait m_l_ptr_to_volatile( type P | m_l_pointer( P ),@\use{m_l_pointer}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to_volatile}@ otype T | ptr_to_volatile( P, T )) {@\use{ptr_to_volatile}@
     3897trait m_l_ptr_to_volatile( otype P | m_l_pointer( P ),@\use{m_l_pointer}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to_volatile}@ otype T | ptr_to_volatile( P, T )) {@\use{ptr_to_volatile}@
    38763898        P ?=?( P *, volatile T * );
    38773899        volatile T * ?=?( volatile T **, P );
    38783900};
    3879 trait m_l_ptr_to_const_volatile( type P | ptr_to_const_volatile( P ),@\use{ptr_to_const_volatile}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to_const_volatile}@
    3880                 type T | m_l_ptr_to_volatile( P, T ) | m_l_ptr_to_const( P )) {@\use{m_l_ptr_to_const}@@\use{m_l_ptr_to_volatile}@
     3901trait m_l_ptr_to_const_volatile( otype P | ptr_to_const_volatile( P ),@\use{ptr_to_const_volatile}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to_const_volatile}@
     3902                otype T | m_l_ptr_to_volatile( P, T ) | m_l_ptr_to_const( P )) {@\use{m_l_ptr_to_const}@@\use{m_l_ptr_to_volatile}@
    38813903        P ?=?( P *, const volatile T * );
    38823904        const volatile T * ?=?( const volatile T **, P );

  • doc/user/user.tex

    r3cfe27f r53ba273  
     1%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -*- Mode: Latex -*- %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
     2%%
     3%% Cforall Version 1.0.0 Copyright (C) 2016 University of Waterloo
     4%%
     5%% The contents of this file are covered under the licence agreement in the
     6%% file "LICENCE" distributed with Cforall.
     7%%
     8%% user.tex --
     9%%
     10%% Author           : Peter A. Buhr
     11%% Created On       : Wed Apr  6 14:53:29 2016
     12%% Last Modified By : Peter A. Buhr
     13%% Last Modified On : Wed Apr  6 17:37:39 2016
     14%% Update Count     : 34
     15%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
     16
    117% requires tex packages: texlive-base texlive-latex-base tex-common texlive-humanities texlive-latex-extra texlive-fonts-recommended
    218
    … …  
    521
    622% Latex packages used in the document.
    7 
     23\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
     24\usepackage{textcomp}
     25\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
     26\usepackage{upquote}
    827\usepackage{fullpage,times}
    928\usepackage{xspace}
    … …  
    2443% Names used in the document.
    2544
    26 \newcommand{\CFA}{C$\forall$\xspace}    % set language symbolic name
     45\newcommand{\CFA}{C$\mathbf\forall$\xspace}     % set language symbolic name
    2746\newcommand{\CFL}{Cforall\xspace}               % set language text name
    2847\newcommand{\CC}{C\kern-.1em\hbox{+\kern-.25em+}\xspace} % CC symbolic name
    … …  
    160179% CFA based on ANSI C
    161180\lstdefinelanguage{CFA}[ANSI]{C}%
    162 {morekeywords={asm,_Alignas,_Alignof,_At,_Atomic,_Bool,catch,catchResume,choose,_Complex,trait,disable,dtype,enable,
    163         fallthru,finally,forall,ftype,_Generic,_Imaginary,inline,lvalue,_Noreturn,otype,restrict,_Static_assert,
    164         _Thread_local,throw,throwResume,try,},
     181{morekeywords={_Alignas,_Alignof,__alignof,__alignof__,asm,__asm,__asm__,_At,_Atomic,__attribute,__attribute__,auto,
     182    _Bool,catch,catchResume,choose,_Complex,__complex,__complex__,__const,__const__,disable,dtype,enable,__extension__,
     183        fallthru,finally,forall,ftype,_Generic,_Imaginary,inline,__label__,lvalue,_Noreturn,otype,restrict,_Static_assert,
     184        _Thread_local,throw,throwResume,trait,try,typeof,__typeof,__typeof__,},
     185  moredelim=**[is][\color{red}]{`}{`},
    165186}%
    166187
    … …  
    176197showstringspaces=false,
    177198showlines=true,
     199aboveskip=6pt,
     200belowskip=4pt,
     201literate={\\`}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{\ttfamily\upshape \hspace*{-2pt}`}}1, % escape \`, otherwise used to highlight in red
     202%extendedchars=true,
    178203}%
    179204
    … …  
    181206% replace/adjust listings characters that look bad in sanserif
    182207\lst@CCPutMacro
    183 \lst@ProcessOther{"2D}{\lst@ttfamily{-{}}{{\ttfamily\upshape -}}} % replace minus
     208\lst@ProcessOther{"22}{\lst@ttfamily{"}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{\ttfamily\upshape "}}} % replace double quote
     209\lst@ProcessOther{"27}{\lst@ttfamily{'}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{\ttfamily\upshape '\hspace*{-2pt}}}} % replace single quote
     210\lst@ProcessOther{"2D}{\lst@ttfamily{-}{\ttfamily\upshape -}} % replace minus
    184211\lst@ProcessOther{"3C}{\lst@ttfamily{<}{\texttt{<}}} % replace less than
    185212\lst@ProcessOther{"3E}{\lst@ttfamily{<}{\texttt{>}}} % replace greater than
    186213\lst@ProcessOther{"5E}{\raisebox{0.4ex}{$\scriptstyle\land\,$}} % replace circumflex
    187 \lst@ProcessLetter{"5F}{\lst@ttfamily{\char95}{{\makebox[1.2ex][c]{\rule{1ex}{0.1ex}}}}} % replace underscore
     214\lst@ProcessOther{"5F}{\lst@ttfamily{\char95}{{\makebox[1.2ex][c]{\rule{1ex}{0.1ex}}}}} % replace underscore
     215\lst@ProcessOther{"60}{\lst@ttfamily{`}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{\ttfamily\upshape \hspace*{-2pt}`}}} % replace backquote
    188216\lst@ProcessOther{"7E}{\raisebox{0.3ex}{$\scriptstyle\sim\,$}} % replace tilde
    189217%\lst@ProcessOther{"7E}{\raisebox{-.4ex}[1ex][0pt]{\textasciitilde}} % lower tilde
    … …  
    366394
    367395The command \lstinline@cfa@ is used to compile \CFA program(s).
    368 This command works like the GNU \lstinline@gcc@ command, e.g.:
     396This command works like the GNU \lstinline@gcc@\index{gcc} command, e.g.:
    369397\begin{lstlisting}
    370398cfa [ gcc-options ] C/@{\CFA}@-files [ assembler/loader-files ]
    371399\end{lstlisting}
    372 The following additional option is available:
     400By default, \CFA programs having the following \lstinline@gcc@ flags turned on:
     401\begin{description}
     402\item
     403\hspace*{-4pt}\lstinline@-std=gnu99@
     404The 1999 C standard plus GNU extensions.
     405\end{description}
     406The following new \CFA option is available:
    373407\begin{description}
    374408\item
    … …  
    382416Numeric constants are extended to allow \Index{underscore}s within constants\index{constant!underscore}, e.g.:
    383417\begin{lstlisting}
    384 2_147_483_648;                          // decimal constant
     4182`_`147`_`483`_`648;                            // decimal constant
    38541956_ul;                                          // decimal unsigned long constant
    3864200_377;                                          // octal constant
    … …  
    451485\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{30pt}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}       & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
    452486\begin{lstlisting}
    453 * int x, y;
     487`* int x, y;`
    454488\end{lstlisting}
    455489&
    … …  
    571605The point of the new syntax is to allow returning multiple values from a routine~\cite{CLU,Galletly96}, e.g.:
    572606\begin{lstlisting}
    573 [ int o1, int o2, char o3 ] f( int i1, char i2, char i3 ) {
     607`[ int o1, int o2, char o3 ]` f( int i1, char i2, char i3 ) {
    574608        @\emph{routine body}@
    575609}
    … …  
    639673Because the value in the return variable is automatically returned when a \CFA routine terminates, the \lstinline@return@ statement \emph{does not} contain an expression, as in:
    640674\begin{lstlisting}
    641 [ int x ] f() {
     675`[ int x ]` f() {
    642676        ... x = 0; ... x = y; ...
    643         return; // implicitly return x
     677        `return;` // implicitly return x
    644678}
    645679\end{lstlisting}
    … …  
    697731for example, the following is incorrect:
    698732\begin{lstlisting}
    699 * [ int x ] f () fp;            // routine name ``f'' is not allowed
     733* [ int x ] f () fp;            // routine name "f" is not allowed
    700734\end{lstlisting}
    701735
    … …  
    864898\subsection{Type Nesting}
    865899
    866 C allows \Index{type nesting}, but the nested types are hoisted\index{type!hoisting} (refactored) into the enclosing scope.
     900\CFA allows \Index{type nesting}, and type qualification of the nested types, where as C hoists\index{type!hoisting} (refactors) nested types into the enclosing scope and has no type qualification.
    867901\begin{quote2}
    868902\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{30pt}}l|l@{}}
    … …  
    919953
    920954int fred() {
    921         s.t.c = S.R;
    922         struct S.T t = { S.R, 1, 2 };
    923         enum S.C c;
    924         union S.T.U u;
     955        s.t.c = `S.`R;  // type qualification
     956        struct `S.`T t = { `S.`R, 1, 2 };
     957        enum `S.`C c;
     958        union `S.T.`U u;
    925959}
    926960\end{lstlisting}
    927961\end{tabular}
    928962\end{quote2}
    929 
    930 \CFA is C \emph{incompatible} on this issue, and provides semantics similar to \CC.
    931 Nested types are not hoisted and can be referenced using the field selection operator ``\lstinline@.@'', unlike the \CC scope-resolution operator ``\lstinline@::@''.
    932 Given that nested types in C are equivalent to not using them, i.e., they are essentially useless, it is unlikely there are any realistic usages that break because of this incompatibility.
     963In the left example in C, types \lstinline@C@, \lstinline@U@ and \lstinline@T@ are implicitly hoisted outside of type \lstinline@S@ into the containing block scope.
     964In the right example in \CFA, the types are not hoisted and accessed using the field-selection operator ``\lstinline@.@'' for type qualification, as does Java, rather than the \CC type-selection operator ``\lstinline@::@''.
    933965
    934966
    … …  
    944976\begin{lstlisting}
    945977const unsigned int size = 10;
    946 int a[size];
    947 
    948 qsort( a, size );               // ascending order using built in ?<?
    949 {                                               // descending order by local redefinition
    950         int ?<?( int a, int b ) { return a > b; } // nested routine
    951         qsort( a, size );
    952 }
    953 \end{lstlisting}
     978int ia[size];
     979...                                             // assign values to array ia
     980qsort( ia, size );              // sort ascending order using builtin ?<?
     981{
     982        `int ?<?( int x, int y ) { return x > y; }` // nested routine
     983        qsort( ia, size );      // sort descending order by local redefinition
     984}
     985\end{lstlisting}
     986
     987Nested routines are not first-class, meaning a nested routine cannot be returned if it has references to variables in its enclosing blocks;
     988the only exception is references to the external block of the translation unit, as these variables persist for the duration of the program.
     989The following program in undefined in \CFA (and \lstinline@gcc@\index{gcc})
     990\begin{lstlisting}
     991[* [int]( int )] foo() {                // int (*foo())( int )
     992        int `i` = 7;
     993        int bar( int p ) {
     994                `i` += 1;                                       // dependent on local variable
     995                sout | `i` | endl;
     996        }
     997        return bar;                                     // undefined because of local dependence
     998}
     999int main() {
     1000        * [int](int) fp = foo();        // int (*fp)(int)
     1001    sout | fp( 3 ) | endl;
     1002}
     1003\end{lstlisting}
     1004because
     1005
     1006Currently, there are no \Index{lambda} expressions, i.e., unnamed routines because routine names are very important to properly select the correct routine.
    9541007
    9551008
    … …  
    10131066
    10141067\item
    1015 Change: A struct is a scope in C++, not in C
    1016 Rationale: Class scope is crucial to C++, and a struct is a class.
    1017 Effect on original feature: Change to semantics of well-defined feature.
    1018 Difficulty of converting: Semantic transformation.
    1019 How widely used: C programs use struct extremely frequently, but the change is only noticeable when
    1020 struct, enumeration, or enumerator names are referred to outside the struct. The latter is probably
    1021 rare.
     1068Change: A struct is a scope in C++, not in C \\
     1069Rationale: Class scope is crucial to C++, and a struct is a class. \\
     1070Effect on original feature: Change to semantics of well-defined feature. \\
     1071Difficulty of converting: Semantic transformation. \\
     1072How widely used: C programs use struct extremely frequently, but the change is only noticeable when struct, enumeration, or enumerator names are referred to outside the struct.
     1073The latter is probably rare.
     1074
     1075\CFA is C \emph{incompatible} on this issue, and provides semantics similar to \CC.
     1076Nested types are not hoisted and can be referenced using the field selection operator ``\lstinline@.@'', unlike the \CC scope-resolution operator ``\lstinline@::@''.
     1077Given that nested types in C are equivalent to not using them, i.e., they are essentially useless, it is unlikely there are any realistic usages that break because of this incompatibility.
     1078
    10221079
    10231080\item
    … …  
    11851242First the right-hand tuple is flattened and then the values are assigned individually.
    11861243Flattening is also performed on tuple types.
    1187 For example, the type \lstinline@[ int, [ int, int ], int ]@ can be coerced, using flattening, into the type lstinline@[ int, int, int, int ]@.
     1244For example, the type \lstinline@[ int, [ int, int ], int ]@ can be coerced, using flattening, into the type \lstinline@[ int, int, int, int ]@.
    11881245
    11891246A \newterm{structuring coercion} is the opposite of flattening;
    … …  
    13521409\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{30pt}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}       & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
    13531410\begin{lstlisting}
    1354 L1: for ( ... ) {
    1355         L2: for ( ... ) {
    1356                 L3: for ( ... ) {
    1357                         ... break L1; ...
    1358                         ... break L2; ...
    1359                         ... break L3; // or break
     1411`L1:` for ( ... ) {
     1412        `L2:` for ( ... ) {
     1413                `L3:` for ( ... ) {
     1414                        ... break `L1`; ...
     1415                        ... break `L2`; ...
     1416                        ... break `L3`; // or break
    13601417                }
    13611418        }
    … …  
    13821439\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{30pt}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}       & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{C}}        \\
    13831440\begin{lstlisting}
    1384 L1: for ( ... ) {
    1385         L2: for ( ... ) {
    1386                 L3: for ( ... ) {
    1387                         ... continue L1; ...
    1388                         ... continue L2; ...
    1389                         ... continue L3; ...
     1441`L1`: for ( ... ) {
     1442        `L2`: for ( ... ) {
     1443                `L3`: for ( ... ) {
     1444                        ... continue `L1`; ...
     1445                        ... continue `L2`; ...
     1446                        ... continue `L3`; ...
    13901447
    13911448                }
    … …  
    16231680\begin{lstlisting}
    16241681switch ( i ) {
    1625   case 1, 3, 5:
     1682  `case 1, 3, 5`:
    16261683        ...
    1627   case 2, 4, 6:
     1684  `case 2, 4, 6`:
    16281685        ...
    16291686}
    … …  
    16341691  case 1: case 3 : case 5:
    16351692        ...
    1636   case 2: case 4 : case 6: /* even values */
     1693  case 2: case 4 : case 6:
    16371694        ...
    16381695}
    … …  
    16551712\begin{lstlisting}
    16561713switch ( i ) {
    1657   case 1~5
     1714  `case 1~5:`
    16581715        ...
    1659   case 10~15
     1716  `case 10~15:`
    16601717        ...
    16611718}
    … …  
    16721729&
    16731730\begin{lstlisting}
     1731
    16741732// 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
    16751733
    … …  
    21682226
    21692227
    2170 \section{Generics }
     2228\section{Auto Type-Inferencing}
     2229
     2230Auto type-inferencing occurs in a declaration where a variable's type is inferred from its initialization expression type.
     2231\begin{quote2}
     2232\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{30pt}}ll@{}}
     2233\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{30pt}}}{\textbf{\CC}}        & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\lstinline@gcc@}\index{gcc} \\
     2234\begin{lstlisting}
     2235
     2236auto j = 3.0 * 4;
     2237int i;
     2238auto k = i;
     2239\end{lstlisting}
     2240&
     2241\begin{lstlisting}
     2242#define expr 3.0 * i
     2243typeof(expr) j = expr;
     2244int i;
     2245typeof(i) k = i;
     2246\end{lstlisting}
     2247&
     2248\begin{lstlisting}
     2249
     2250// use type of initialization expression
     2251
     2252// use type of primary variable
     2253\end{lstlisting}
     2254\end{tabular}
     2255\end{quote2}
     2256The two important capabilities are:
     2257\begin{itemize}
     2258\item
     2259preventing having to determine or write out long generic types,
     2260\item
     2261ensure secondary variables, related to a primary variable, always have the same type.
     2262\end{itemize}
     2263
     2264In \CFA, \lstinline@typedef@ provides a mechanism to alias long type names with short ones, both globally and locally, but not eliminate the use of the short name.
     2265\lstinline@gcc@ provides \lstinline@typeof@ to declare a secondary variable from a primary variable.
     2266\CFA also relies heavily on the specification of the left-hand side of assignment for type inferencing, so in many cases it is crucial to specify the type of the left-hand side to select the correct type of the right-hand expression.
     2267Only for overloaded routines with the same return type is variable type-inferencing possible.
     2268Finally, \lstinline@auto@ presents the programming problem of tracking down a type when the type is actually needed.
     2269For example, given
     2270\begin{lstlisting}
     2271auto j = `...`
     2272\end{lstlisting}
     2273and the need to write a routine to compute using \lstinline@j@
     2274\begin{lstlisting}
     2275void rtn( `...` parm );
     2276rtn( j );
     2277\end{lstlisting}
     2278A programmer must work backwards to determine the type of \lstinline@j@'s initialization expression, reconstructing the possibly long generic type-name.
     2279In this situation, having the type name or a short alias is very useful.
     2280
     2281There is also the conundrum in type inferencing of when to \emph{\Index{brand}} a type.
     2282That is, when is the type of the variable more important than the type of its initialization expression.
     2283For example, if a change is made in an initialization expression, it can cause hundreds or thousands of cascading type changes and/or errors.
     2284At some point, a programmer wants the type of the variable to remain constant and the expression to be in error when it changes.
     2285
     2286Given \lstinline@typedef@ and \lstinline@typeof@ in \CFA, and the strong need to use the type of left-hand side in inferencing, auto type-inferencing is not supported at this time.
     2287Should a significant need arise, this feature can be revisited.
     2288
     2289
     2290\section{Generics}
    21712291
    21722292\CFA supports parametric polymorphism to allow users to define generic functions and types.
    … …  
    24572577
    24582578
    2459 \section{I/O Library}
    2460 \label{s:IOLibrary}
    2461 
    2462 The goal for \CFA I/O is to make I/O as simple as possible for the general case, while fully supporting polmorphism and user defined types in a consistent way.
    2463 The general case is printing out a sequence of variables separated by whitespace.
    2464 \begin{lstlisting}
    2465 int x = 0, y = 1, z = 2;
    2466 sout | x | y | z | endl;
    2467 
    2468 cout << x << " " << y << " " << z << endl;
    2469 \end{lstlisting}
    2470 The \CC form takes almost twice as many characters.
    2471 
    2472 The logical-or operator is used because it is the lowest priority overloadable operator, other than assignment.
    2473 Therefore, most output expressions do not require parenthesis.
    2474 \begin{lstlisting}
    2475 int x = 0, y = 1, z = 2;
    2476 sout | x * 3 | y + 1 | z << 2 | x == y | (x | y) | (x || y) | (x > z ? 1 : 2) | endl;
    2477 
    2478 cout << x * 3 << y + 1 << (z << 2) << (x == y) << (x | y) << (x || y) << (x > z ? 1 : 2) << endl;
    2479 \end{lstlisting}
    2480 
    2481 Finally, the logical-or operator has a link with the Shell pipe-operator for moving data, although data flows in the opposite direction.
    2482 
    2483 \begin{figure}
    2484 \begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off]
    2485 #include <fstream>
    2486 
    2487 int main() {
    2488         char c;
    2489         short int si;
    2490         unsigned short int usi;
    2491         int i;
    2492         unsigned int ui;
    2493         long int li;
    2494         unsigned long int uli;
    2495         long long int lli;
    2496         unsigned long long int ulli;
    2497         float f;
    2498         double d;
    2499         long double ld;
    2500         float _Complex fc;
    2501         double _Complex dc;
    2502         long double _Complex ldc;
    2503         char s1[10], s2[10];
    2504 
    2505         ifstream in;
    2506         open( &in, "read.data", "r" );
    2507 
    2508         &in | &c
    2509                 | &si | &usi | &i | &ui | &li | &uli | &lli | &ulli
    2510                 | &f | &d | &ld
    2511                 | &fc | &dc | &ldc
    2512                 | str( s1 ) | str( s2, 10 );
    2513 
    2514         sout | c | ' ' | endl
    2515                  | si | usi | i | ui | li | uli | lli | ulli | endl
    2516                  | f | d | ld | endl
    2517                  | f | "" | d | "" | ld | endl;
    2518 
    2519         sepSet( sout, ", $" );
    2520         sout | fc | dc | ldc | endl
    2521                  | sepOn | s1 | sepOff | s2 | endl
    2522                  | s1 | "" | s2 | endl;
    2523 }
    2524 
    2525 $ cat read.data
    2526 A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.1+2.3 1.1-2.3 1.1-2.3 abc xyz
    2527 $ a.out
    2528 A
    2529 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
    2530 1.1 1.2 1.3
    2531 1.11.21.3
    2532 1.1+2.3i, $1.1-2.3i, $1.1-2.3i
    2533 , $abcxyz
    2534 abcxyz
    2535 \end{lstlisting}
    2536 \end{figure}
    2537 
    2538 
    2539 \section{Standard Library}
    2540 \label{s:StandardLibrary}
    2541 
    2542 The goal of the \CFA standard-library is to wrap many of the existing C library-routines that are explicitly polymorphic into implicitly polymorphic versions.
    2543 
    2544 
    2545 \subsection{malloc}
    2546 
    2547 \begin{lstlisting}
    2548 forall( otype T ) T * malloc( void );
    2549 forall( otype T ) T * malloc( char fill );
    2550 forall( otype T ) T * malloc( T * ptr, size_t size );
    2551 forall( otype T ) T * malloc( T * ptr, size_t size, unsigned char fill );
    2552 forall( otype T ) T * calloc( size_t size );
    2553 forall( otype T ) T * realloc( T * ptr, size_t size );
    2554 forall( otype T ) T * realloc( T * ptr, size_t size, unsigned char fill );
    2555 
    2556 forall( otype T ) T * aligned_alloc( size_t alignment );
    2557 forall( otype T ) T * memalign( size_t alignment );             // deprecated
    2558 forall( otype T ) int posix_memalign( T ** ptr, size_t alignment );
    2559 
    2560 forall( otype T ) T * memset( T * ptr, unsigned char fill ); // use default value '\0' for fill
    2561 forall( otype T ) T * memset( T * ptr );                                // remove when default value available
    2562 \end{lstlisting}
    2563 
    2564 
    2565 \subsection{ato/strto}
    2566 
    2567 \begin{lstlisting}
    2568 int ato( const char * ptr );
    2569 unsigned int ato( const char * ptr );
    2570 long int ato( const char * ptr );
    2571 unsigned long int ato( const char * ptr );
    2572 long long int ato( const char * ptr );
    2573 unsigned long long int ato( const char * ptr );
    2574 float ato( const char * ptr );
    2575 double ato( const char * ptr );
    2576 long double ato( const char * ptr );
    2577 float _Complex ato( const char * ptr );
    2578 double _Complex ato( const char * ptr );
    2579 long double _Complex ato( const char * ptr );
    2580 
    2581 int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
    2582 unsigned int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
    2583 long int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
    2584 unsigned long int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
    2585 long long int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
    2586 unsigned long long int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
    2587 float strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
    2588 double strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
    2589 long double strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
    2590 float _Complex strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
    2591 double _Complex strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
    2592 long double _Complex strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
    2593 \end{lstlisting}
    2594 
    2595 
    2596 \subsection{bsearch/qsort}
    2597 
    2598 \begin{lstlisting}
    2599 forall( otype T | { int ?<?( T, T ); } )
    2600 T * bsearch( const T key, const T * arr, size_t dimension );
    2601 
    2602 forall( otype T | { int ?<?( T, T ); } )
    2603 void qsort( const T * arr, size_t dimension );
    2604 \end{lstlisting}
    2605 
    2606 
    2607 \subsection{abs}
    2608 
    2609 \begin{lstlisting}
    2610 char abs( char );
    2611 extern "C" {
    2612 int abs( int );         // use default C routine for int
    2613 } // extern
    2614 long int abs( long int );
    2615 long long int abs( long long int );
    2616 float abs( float );
    2617 double abs( double );
    2618 long double abs( long double );
    2619 float _Complex abs( float _Complex );
    2620 double _Complex abs( double _Complex );
    2621 long double _Complex abs( long double _Complex );
    2622 \end{lstlisting}
    2623 
    2624 
    2625 \subsection{random}
    2626 
    2627 \begin{lstlisting}
    2628 void randseed( long int s );
    2629 char random();
    2630 int random();
    2631 unsigned int random();
    2632 long int random();
    2633 unsigned long int random();
    2634 float random();
    2635 double random();
    2636 float _Complex random();
    2637 double _Complex random();
    2638 long double _Complex random();
    2639 \end{lstlisting}
    2640 
    2641 
    2642 \subsection{min/max/swap}
    2643 
    2644 \begin{lstlisting}
    2645 forall( otype T | { int ?<?( T, T ); } )
    2646 T min( const T t1, const T t2 );
    2647 
    2648 forall( otype T | { int ?>?( T, T ); } )
    2649 T max( const T t1, const T t2 );
    2650 
    2651 forall( otype T )
    2652 void swap( T * t1, T * t2 );
    2653 \end{lstlisting}
     2579\section{Syntactic Anomalies}
     2580
     2581The number 0 and 1 are treated specially in \CFA, and can be redefined as variables.
     2582One syntactic anomaly is when a field in an structure is names 0 or 1:
     2583\begin{lstlisting}
     2584struct S {
     2585        int 0, 1;
     2586} s;
     2587\end{lstlisting}
     2588The problem occurs in accesing these fields using the selection operation ``\lstinline@.@'':
     2589\begin{lstlisting}
     2590s.0 = 0;        // ambiguity with floating constant .0
     2591s.1 = 1;        // ambiguity with floating constant .1
     2592\end{lstlisting}
     2593To make this work, a space is required after the field selection:
     2594\begin{lstlisting}
     2595`s.@\textvisiblespace@0` = 0;
     2596`s.@\textvisiblespace@1` = 1;
     2597\end{lstlisting}
     2598While this sytact is awkward, it is unlikely many programers will name fields of a structure 0 or 1.
     2599Like the \CC lexical problem with closing template-syntax, e.g, \lstinline@Foo<Bar<int`>>`@, this issue can be solved with a more powerful lexer/parser.
     2600
     2601There are several ambiguous cases with operator identifiers, e.g., \lstinline@int *?*?()@, where the string \lstinline@*?*?@ can be lexed as \lstinline@*@/\lstinline@?*?@ or \lstinline@*?@/\lstinline@*?@.
     2602Since it is common practise to put a unary operator juxtaposed to an identifier, e.g., \lstinline@*i@, users will be annoyed if they cannot do this with respect to operator identifiers.
     2603Even with this special hack, there are 5 general cases that cannot be handled.
     2604The first case is for the function-call identifier \lstinline@?()@:
     2605\begin{lstlisting}
     2606int *@\textvisiblespace@?()();  // declaration: space required after '*'
     2607*@\textvisiblespace@?()();              // expression: space required after '*'
     2608\end{lstlisting}
     2609Without the space, the string \lstinline@*?()@ is ambiguous without N character look ahead;
     2610it requires scanning ahead to determine if there is a \lstinline@'('@, which is the start of an argument/parameter list.
     2611
     2612The 4 remaining cases occur in expressions:
     2613\begin{lstlisting}
     2614i++@\textvisiblespace@?i:0;             // space required before '?'
     2615i--@\textvisiblespace@?i:0;             // space required before '?'
     2616i@\textvisiblespace@?++i:0;             // space required after '?'
     2617i@\textvisiblespace@?--i:0;             // space required after '?'
     2618\end{lstlisting}
     2619In the first two cases, the string \lstinline@i++?@ is ambiguous, where this string can be lexed as \lstinline@i@ / \lstinline@++?@ or \lstinline@i++@ / \lstinline@?@;
     2620it requires scanning ahead to determine if there is a \lstinline@'('@, which is the start of an argument list.
     2621In the second two cases, the string \lstinline@?++x@ is ambiguous, where this string can be lexed as \lstinline@?++@ / \lstinline@x@ or \lstinline@?@ / y\lstinline@++x@;
     2622it requires scanning ahead to determine if there is a \lstinline@'('@, which is the start of an argument list.
    26542623
    26552624
    … …  
    26762645
    26772646task creates a type with implicit locking, separate stack, and a thread
     2647
    26782648
    26792649\subsection{Monitors}
    … …  
    37753745\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\textbf{\CFA/\CC}} & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\textbf{Go}} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{Rust}}   \\
    37763746\hline
    3777 \begin{lstlisting}
     3747\begin{lstlisting}[boxpos=t]
    37783748extern "C" {
    37793749#include <sys/types.h>
    … …  
    37823752}
    37833753size_t fileSize( const char *path ) {
    3784         stat s;
     3754        struct stat s;
    37853755        stat(path, &s);
    37863756        return s.st_size;
    … …  
    37883758\end{lstlisting}
    37893759&
    3790 \begin{lstlisting}
     3760\begin{lstlisting}[boxpos=t]
    37913761/*
    37923762#cgo
    … …  
    38073777\end{lstlisting}
    38083778&
    3809 \begin{lstlisting}
     3779\begin{lstlisting}[boxpos=t]
    38103780use libc::{c_int, size_t};
    3811 
    3812 // The following declarations are
    38133781// translated from sys/stat.h
    38143782#[repr(C)]
    … …  
    38183786        ...
    38193787}
    3820 
    38213788#[link(name = "libc")]
    38223789extern {
    … …  
    38243791        buf: *mut stat_t) -> c_int;
    38253792}
    3826 
    38273793fn fileSize(path: *const u8) -> size_t
    38283794{
    38293795        unsafe {
    3830         let mut buf: stat_t = uninit();
    3831         stat(path, &mut buf);
    3832         buf.st_size
     3796                let mut buf: stat_t = uninit();
     3797                stat(path, &mut buf);
     3798                buf.st_size
    38333799        }
    38343800}
    … …  
    39533919
    39543920
     3921\begin{comment}
    39553922\subsubsection{Modules/Packages}
    39563923
    … …  
    40323999}
    40334000\end{lstlisting}
     4001\end{comment}
     4002
    40344003
    40354004\subsubsection{Parallel Tasks}
    … …  
    41874156\end{flushleft}
    41884157
     4158\lstset{basicstyle=\sf\relsize{-1}}
     4159
     4160
    41894161\subsection{Summary of Language Comparison}
    41904162
    … …  
    42534225D does not have any built-in concurrency constructs in the
    42544226language, though it does have a standard library for concurrency which includes the low-level primitives for concurrency.
     4227
     4228
     4229\appendix
     4230
     4231
     4232\section{I/O Library}
     4233\label{s:IOLibrary}
     4234\index{input/output library}
     4235
     4236The goal for \CFA I/O is to make I/O as simple as possible for the general case, while fully supporting polmorphism and user defined types in a consistent way.
     4237The general case is printing out a sequence of variables separated by whitespace.
     4238\begin{quote2}
     4239\begin{tabular}{@{}l@{\hspace{30pt}}l@{}}
     4240\multicolumn{1}{c@{\hspace{30pt}}}{\textbf{\CFA}}       & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textbf{\CC}}      \\
     4241\begin{lstlisting}
     4242int x = 0, y = 1, z = 2;
     4243`sout` `|` x `|` y `|` z `| endl`;
     4244\end{lstlisting}
     4245&
     4246\begin{lstlisting}
     4247
     4248cout << x << " " << y << " " << z << endl;
     4249\end{lstlisting}
     4250\end{tabular}
     4251\end{quote2}
     4252The \CFA form is half as many characters, and is similar to Python I/O with respect to implicit separators.
     4253
     4254The logical-or operator is used because it is the lowest-priority overloadable operator, other than assignment.
     4255Therefore, fewer output expressions require parenthesis.
     4256\begin{quote2}
     4257\begin{tabular}{@{}ll@{}}
     4258\textbf{\CFA:}
     4259&
     4260\begin{lstlisting}
     4261sout | x * 3 | y + 1 | z << 2 | x == y | (x | y) | (x || y) | (x > z ? 1 : 2) | endl;
     4262\end{lstlisting}
     4263\\
     4264\textbf{\CC:}
     4265&
     4266\begin{lstlisting}
     4267cout << x * 3 << y + 1 << (z << 2) << (x == y) << (x | y) << (x || y) << (x > z ? 1 : 2) << endl;
     4268\end{lstlisting}
     4269\end{tabular}
     4270\end{quote2}
     4271Finally, the logical-or operator has a link with the Shell pipe-operator for moving data, although data flows in the opposite direction.
     4272
     4273The implicit seperator\index{I/O separator} character (space/blank) is a separator not a terminator.
     4274The rules for implicitly adding the separator are:
     4275\begin{enumerate}
     4276\item
     4277A seperator does not appear at the start or end of a line.
     4278\begin{lstlisting}[belowskip=0pt]
     4279sout 1 | 2 | 3 | endl;
     4280\end{lstlisting}
     4281\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,showspaces=true,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     42821 2 3
     4283\end{lstlisting}
     4284\item
     4285A seperator does not appear before or after a character literal or variable.
     4286\begin{lstlisting}
     4287sout | '1' | '2' | '3' | endl;
     4288123
     4289\end{lstlisting}
     4290\item
     4291A seperator does not appear before or after a null (empty) C string
     4292\begin{lstlisting}
     4293sout | 1 | "" | 2 | "" | 3 | endl;
     4294123
     4295\end{lstlisting}
     4296which is a local mechanism to disable insertion of the separator character.
     4297\item
     4298A seperator does not appear before a C string starting with the \Index{extended ASCII}\index{ASCII} characters: \lstinline[mathescape=off]@([{$£¥¿«@
     4299%$
     4300\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off]
     4301sout | "x (" | 1 | "x [" | 2 | "x {" | 3 | "x $" | 4 | "x £" | 5 | "x ¥" | 6 | "x ¿" | 7 | "x «" | 8 | endl;
     4302\end{lstlisting}
     4303%$
     4304\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,showspaces=true,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     4305x (1 x [2 x {3 x $4 x £5 x ¥6 x ¿7 x «8
     4306\end{lstlisting}
     4307%$
     4308\item
     4309A seperator does not appear after a C string ending with the extended ASCII characters: \lstinline@,.:;!?)]}%¢»@
     4310\begin{lstlisting}[belowskip=0pt]
     4311sout | 1 | ", x" | 2 | ". x" | 3 | ": x" | 4 | "; x" | 5 | "! x" | 6 | "? x" | 7 | ") x" | 8 | "] x" | 9 | "} x"
     4312         | 10 | "% x" | 11 | L"¢ x" | 12 | L"» x" | endl;
     4313\end{lstlisting}
     4314\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,showspaces=true,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     43151, x 2. x 3: x 4; x 5! x 6? x 7) x 8] x 9} x 10% x 11¢ 12»
     4316\end{lstlisting}
     4317\item
     4318A seperator does not appear before or after a C string begining/ending with the characters: \lstinline@\f\n\r\t\v\`'"@
     4319\begin{lstlisting}[belowskip=0pt]
     4320sout | "x '" | 1 | "' x \`" | 2 | "\` x \"" | 3 | "\" x" | endl;
     4321\end{lstlisting}
     4322\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,showspaces=true,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     4323x '1' x \`2\` x "3" x
     4324\end{lstlisting}
     4325\begin{lstlisting}[showtabs=true,aboveskip=0pt]
     4326sout | "x\t" | 1 | "\tx" | endl;
     4327x       1       x
     4328\end{lstlisting}
     4329\end{enumerate}
     4330The following \CC-style \Index{manipulator}s allow further control over implicit seperation.
     4331\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,belowskip=0pt]
     4332sout | sepOn | 1 | 2 | 3 | sepOn | endl;        // separator at start of line
     4333\end{lstlisting}
     4334\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,showspaces=true,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     4335 1 2 3
     4336\end{lstlisting}
     4337\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     4338sout | 1 | sepOff | 2 | 3 | endl;                       // turn off implicit separator temporarily
     4339\end{lstlisting}
     4340\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,showspaces=true,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     434112 3
     4342\end{lstlisting}
     4343\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     4344sout | sepDisable | 1 | 2 | 3 | endl;           // turn off implicit separation, affects all subsequent prints
     4345\end{lstlisting}
     4346\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,showspaces=true,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     4347123
     4348\end{lstlisting}
     4349\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     4350sout | 1 | sepOn | 2 | 3 | endl;                        // turn on implicit separator temporarily
     4351\end{lstlisting}
     4352\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,showspaces=true,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     43531 23
     4354\end{lstlisting}
     4355\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     4356sout | sepEnable | 1 | 2 | 3 | endl;            // turn on implicit separation, affects all subsequent prints
     4357\end{lstlisting}
     4358\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,showspaces=true,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     43591 2 3
     4360\end{lstlisting}
     4361\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,aboveskip=0pt,aboveskip=0pt,belowskip=0pt]
     4362sepSet( sout, ", $" );                                          // change separator from " " to ", $"
     4363sout | 1 | 2 | 3 | endl;
     4364\end{lstlisting}
     4365%$
     4366\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off,showspaces=true,aboveskip=0pt]
     43671, $2, $3
     4368\end{lstlisting}
     4369%$
     4370\VRef[Figure]{f:ExampleIO} shows an example of input and output I/O in \CFA.
     4371
     4372\begin{figure}
     4373\begin{lstlisting}[mathescape=off]
     4374#include <fstream>
     4375
     4376int main() {
     4377        char c;                                                                                                         // basic types
     4378        short int si;
     4379        unsigned short int usi;
     4380        int i;
     4381        unsigned int ui;
     4382        long int li;
     4383        unsigned long int uli;
     4384        long long int lli;
     4385        unsigned long long int ulli;
     4386        float f;
     4387        double d;
     4388        long double ld;
     4389        float _Complex fc;
     4390        double _Complex dc;
     4391        long double _Complex ldc;
     4392        char s1[10], s2[10];
     4393
     4394        ifstream in;                                                                                            // create / open file
     4395        open( &in, "input.data", "r" );
     4396
     4397        &in | &c                                                                                                        // character
     4398                | &si | &usi | &i | &ui | &li | &uli | &lli | &ulli             // integral
     4399                | &f | &d | &ld                                                                                 // floating point
     4400                | &fc | &dc | &ldc                                                                              // floating-point complex
     4401                | cstr( s1 ) | cstr( s2, 10 );                                                  // C string, length unchecked and checked
     4402
     4403        sout | c | ' ' | endl                                                                           // character
     4404                 | si | usi | i | ui | li | uli | lli | ulli | endl             // integral
     4405                 | f | d | ld | endl                                                                    // floating point
     4406                 | fc | dc | ldc | endl;                                                                // complex
     4407        sout | endl;
     4408        sout | f | "" | d | "" | ld | endl                                                      // floating point without separator
     4409                 | sepDisable | fc | dc | ldc | sepEnable | endl                // complex without separator
     4410                 | sepOn | s1 | sepOff | s2 | endl                                              // local separator removal
     4411                 | s1 | "" | s2 | endl;                                                                 // C string withou separator
     4412        sout | endl;
     4413        sepSet( sout, ", $" );                                                                          // change separator, maximum of 15 characters
     4414        sout | f | d | ld | endl                                                                        // floating point without separator
     4415                 | fc | dc | ldc | endl                                                                 // complex without separator
     4416                 | s1 | s2 | endl;
     4417}
     4418
     4419$ cat input.data
     4420A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.1+2.3 1.1-2.3 1.1-2.3 abc xyz
     4421$ a.out
     4422A
     44231 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
     44241.1 1.2 1.3
     44251.1+2.3i 1.1-2.3i 1.1-2.3i
     4426
     44271.11.21.3
     44281.1+2.3i1.1-2.3i1.1-2.3i
     4429 abcxyz
     4430abcxyz
     4431
     44321.1, $1.2, $1.3
     44331.1+2.3i, $1.1-2.3i, $1.1-2.3i
     4434abc, $xyz
     4435\end{lstlisting}
     4436\caption{Example I/O}
     4437\label{f:ExampleIO}
     4438\end{figure}
     4439
     4440
     4441\section{Standard Library}
     4442\label{s:StandardLibrary}
     4443
     4444The goal of the \CFA standard-library is to wrap many of the existing C library-routines that are explicitly polymorphic into implicitly polymorphic versions.
     4445
     4446
     4447\subsection{malloc}
     4448
     4449\begin{lstlisting}
     4450forall( otype T ) T * malloc( void );
     4451forall( otype T ) T * malloc( char fill );
     4452forall( otype T ) T * malloc( T * ptr, size_t size );
     4453forall( otype T ) T * malloc( T * ptr, size_t size, unsigned char fill );
     4454forall( otype T ) T * calloc( size_t size );
     4455forall( otype T ) T * realloc( T * ptr, size_t size );
     4456forall( otype T ) T * realloc( T * ptr, size_t size, unsigned char fill );
     4457
     4458forall( otype T ) T * aligned_alloc( size_t alignment );
     4459forall( otype T ) T * memalign( size_t alignment );             // deprecated
     4460forall( otype T ) int posix_memalign( T ** ptr, size_t alignment );
     4461
     4462forall( otype T ) T * memset( T * ptr, unsigned char fill ); // use default value '\0' for fill
     4463forall( otype T ) T * memset( T * ptr );                                // remove when default value available
     4464\end{lstlisting}
     4465
     4466
     4467\subsection{ato/strto}
     4468
     4469\begin{lstlisting}
     4470int ato( const char * ptr );
     4471unsigned int ato( const char * ptr );
     4472long int ato( const char * ptr );
     4473unsigned long int ato( const char * ptr );
     4474long long int ato( const char * ptr );
     4475unsigned long long int ato( const char * ptr );
     4476float ato( const char * ptr );
     4477double ato( const char * ptr );
     4478long double ato( const char * ptr );
     4479float _Complex ato( const char * ptr );
     4480double _Complex ato( const char * ptr );
     4481long double _Complex ato( const char * ptr );
     4482
     4483int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
     4484unsigned int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
     4485long int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
     4486unsigned long int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
     4487long long int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
     4488unsigned long long int strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr, int base );
     4489float strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
     4490double strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
     4491long double strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
     4492float _Complex strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
     4493double _Complex strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
     4494long double _Complex strto( const char * sptr, char ** eptr );
     4495\end{lstlisting}
     4496
     4497
     4498\subsection{bsearch/qsort}
     4499
     4500\begin{lstlisting}
     4501forall( otype T | { int ?<?( T, T ); } )
     4502T * bsearch( const T key, const T * arr, size_t dimension );
     4503
     4504forall( otype T | { int ?<?( T, T ); } )
     4505void qsort( const T * arr, size_t dimension );
     4506\end{lstlisting}
     4507
     4508
     4509\subsection{abs}
     4510
     4511\begin{lstlisting}
     4512char abs( char );
     4513extern "C" {
     4514int abs( int );                         // use default C routine for int
     4515} // extern "C"
     4516long int abs( long int );
     4517long long int abs( long long int );
     4518float abs( float );
     4519double abs( double );
     4520long double abs( long double );
     4521float _Complex abs( float _Complex );
     4522double _Complex abs( double _Complex );
     4523long double _Complex abs( long double _Complex );
     4524\end{lstlisting}
     4525
     4526
     4527\subsection{floor/ceil}
     4528
     4529\begin{lstlisting}
     4530float floor( float );
     4531extern "C" {
     4532double floor( double );         // use C routine for double
     4533} // extern "C"
     4534long double floor( long double );
     4535
     4536float ceil( float );
     4537extern "C" {
     4538double ceil( double );          // use C routine for double
     4539} // extern "C"
     4540long double ceil( long double );
     4541\end{lstlisting}
     4542
     4543
     4544\subsection{random}
     4545
     4546\begin{lstlisting}
     4547void rand48seed( long int s );
     4548char rand48();
     4549int rand48();
     4550unsigned int rand48();
     4551long int rand48();
     4552unsigned long int rand48();
     4553float rand48();
     4554double rand48();
     4555float _Complex rand48();
     4556double _Complex rand48();
     4557long double _Complex rand48();
     4558\end{lstlisting}
     4559
     4560
     4561\subsection{min/max/swap}
     4562
     4563\begin{lstlisting}
     4564forall( otype T | { int ?<?( T, T ); } )
     4565T min( const T t1, const T t2 );
     4566
     4567forall( otype T | { int ?>?( T, T ); } )
     4568T max( const T t1, const T t2 );
     4569
     4570forall( otype T )
     4571void swap( T * t1, T * t2 );
     4572\end{lstlisting}
    42554573
    42564574
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