source: src/ResolvExpr/AlternativeFinder.cc@ fbecee5

//
// Cforall Version 1.0.0 Copyright (C) 2015 University of Waterloo
//
// The contents of this file are covered under the licence agreement in the
// file "LICENCE" distributed with Cforall.
//
// AlternativeFinder.cc --
//
// Author           : Richard C. Bilson
// Created On       : Sat May 16 23:52:08 2015
// Last Modified By : Aaron B. Moss
// Last Modified On : Fri Oct -5 10:01:00 2018
// Update Count     : 34
//

#include <algorithm>               // for copy
#include <cassert>                 // for strict_dynamic_cast, assert, assertf
#include <cstddef>                 // for size_t
#include <iostream>                // for operator<<, cerr, ostream, endl
#include <iterator>                // for back_insert_iterator, back_inserter
#include <list>                    // for _List_iterator, list, _List_const_...
#include <map>                     // for _Rb_tree_iterator, map, _Rb_tree_c...
#include <memory>                  // for allocator_traits<>::value_type, unique_ptr
#include <utility>                 // for pair
#include <vector>                  // for vector

#include "CompilationState.h"      // for resolvep
#include "Alternative.h"           // for AltList, Alternative
#include "AlternativeFinder.h"
#include "Common/SemanticError.h"  // for SemanticError
#include "Common/utility.h"        // for deleteAll, printAll, CodeLocation
#include "Cost.h"                  // for Cost, Cost::zero, operator<<, Cost...
#include "ExplodedActual.h"        // for ExplodedActual
#include "InitTweak/InitTweak.h"   // for getFunctionName
#include "RenameVars.h"            // for RenameVars, global_renamer
#include "ResolveAssertions.h"     // for resolveAssertions
#include "ResolveTypeof.h"         // for resolveTypeof
#include "Resolver.h"              // for resolveStmtExpr
#include "SymTab/Indexer.h"        // for Indexer
#include "SymTab/Mangler.h"        // for Mangler
#include "SymTab/Validate.h"       // for validateType
#include "SynTree/Constant.h"      // for Constant
#include "SynTree/Declaration.h"   // for DeclarationWithType, TypeDecl, Dec...
#include "SynTree/Expression.h"    // for Expression, CastExpr, NameExpr
#include "SynTree/Initializer.h"   // for SingleInit, operator<<, Designation
#include "SynTree/SynTree.h"       // for UniqueId
#include "SynTree/Type.h"          // for Type, FunctionType, PointerType
#include "Tuples/Explode.h"        // for explode
#include "Tuples/Tuples.h"         // for isTtype, handleTupleAssignment
#include "Unify.h"                 // for unify
#include "typeops.h"               // for adjustExprType, polyCost, castCost

#define PRINT( text ) if ( resolvep ) { text }
//#define DEBUG_COST

using std::move;

/// copies any copyable type
template<typename T>
T copy(const T& x) { return x; }

namespace ResolvExpr {
        struct AlternativeFinder::Finder : public WithShortCircuiting {
                Finder( AlternativeFinder & altFinder ) : altFinder( altFinder ), indexer( altFinder.indexer ), alternatives( altFinder.alternatives ), env( altFinder.env ), targetType( altFinder.targetType )  {}

                void previsit( BaseSyntaxNode * ) { visit_children = false; }

                void postvisit( ApplicationExpr * applicationExpr );
                void postvisit( UntypedExpr * untypedExpr );
                void postvisit( AddressExpr * addressExpr );
                void postvisit( LabelAddressExpr * labelExpr );
                void postvisit( CastExpr * castExpr );
                void postvisit( VirtualCastExpr * castExpr );
                void postvisit( UntypedMemberExpr * memberExpr );
                void postvisit( MemberExpr * memberExpr );
                void postvisit( NameExpr * variableExpr );
                void postvisit( VariableExpr * variableExpr );
                void postvisit( ConstantExpr * constantExpr );
                void postvisit( SizeofExpr * sizeofExpr );
                void postvisit( AlignofExpr * alignofExpr );
                void postvisit( UntypedOffsetofExpr * offsetofExpr );
                void postvisit( OffsetofExpr * offsetofExpr );
                void postvisit( OffsetPackExpr * offsetPackExpr );
                void postvisit( AttrExpr * attrExpr );
                void postvisit( LogicalExpr * logicalExpr );
                void postvisit( ConditionalExpr * conditionalExpr );
                void postvisit( CommaExpr * commaExpr );
                void postvisit( ImplicitCopyCtorExpr  * impCpCtorExpr );
                void postvisit( ConstructorExpr  * ctorExpr );
                void postvisit( RangeExpr  * rangeExpr );
                void postvisit( UntypedTupleExpr * tupleExpr );
                void postvisit( TupleExpr * tupleExpr );
                void postvisit( TupleIndexExpr * tupleExpr );
                void postvisit( TupleAssignExpr * tupleExpr );
                void postvisit( UniqueExpr * unqExpr );
                void postvisit( StmtExpr * stmtExpr );
                void postvisit( UntypedInitExpr * initExpr );
                void postvisit( InitExpr * initExpr );
                void postvisit( DeletedExpr * delExpr );
                void postvisit( GenericExpr * genExpr );

                /// Adds alternatives for anonymous members
                void addAnonConversions( const Alternative & alt );
                /// Adds alternatives for member expressions, given the aggregate, conversion cost for that aggregate, and name of the member
                template< typename StructOrUnionType > void addAggMembers( StructOrUnionType *aggInst, Expression *expr, const Alternative &alt, const Cost &newCost, const std::string & name );
                /// Adds alternatives for member expressions where the left side has tuple type
                void addTupleMembers( TupleType *tupleType, Expression *expr, const Alternative &alt, const Cost &newCost, Expression *member );
                /// Adds alternatives for offsetof expressions, given the base type and name of the member
                template< typename StructOrUnionType > void addOffsetof( StructOrUnionType *aggInst, const std::string &name );
                /// Takes a final result and checks if its assertions can be satisfied
                template<typename OutputIterator>
                void validateFunctionAlternative( const Alternative &func, ArgPack& result, const std::vector<ArgPack>& results, OutputIterator out );
                /// Finds matching alternatives for a function, given a set of arguments
                template<typename OutputIterator>
                void makeFunctionAlternatives( const Alternative &func, FunctionType *funcType, const ExplodedArgs& args, OutputIterator out );
                /// Checks if assertion parameters match for a new alternative
                template< typename OutputIterator >
                void inferParameters( const AssertionSet &need, AssertionSet &have, const Alternative &newAlt, OpenVarSet &openVars, OutputIterator out );
        private:
                AlternativeFinder & altFinder;
                const SymTab::Indexer &indexer;
                AltList & alternatives;
                const TypeEnvironment &env;
                Type *& targetType;
        };

        Cost sumCost( const AltList &in ) {
                Cost total = Cost::zero;
                for ( AltList::const_iterator i = in.begin(); i != in.end(); ++i ) {
                        total += i->cost;
                }
                return total;
        }

        void printAlts( const AltList &list, std::ostream &os, unsigned int indentAmt ) {
                Indenter indent = { Indenter::tabsize, indentAmt };
                for ( AltList::const_iterator i = list.begin(); i != list.end(); ++i ) {
                        i->print( os, indent );
                        os << std::endl;
                }
        }

        namespace {
                void makeExprList( const AltList &in, std::list< Expression* > &out ) {
                        for ( AltList::const_iterator i = in.begin(); i != in.end(); ++i ) {
                                out.push_back( i->expr->clone() );
                        }
                }

                struct PruneStruct {
                        bool isAmbiguous;
                        AltList::iterator candidate;
                        PruneStruct() {}
                        PruneStruct( AltList::iterator candidate ): isAmbiguous( false ), candidate( candidate ) {}
                };

                /// Prunes a list of alternatives down to those that have the minimum conversion cost for a given return type; skips ambiguous interpretations
                template< typename InputIterator, typename OutputIterator >
                void pruneAlternatives( InputIterator begin, InputIterator end, OutputIterator out ) {
                        // select the alternatives that have the minimum conversion cost for a particular set of result types
                        std::map< std::string, PruneStruct > selected;
                        for ( AltList::iterator candidate = begin; candidate != end; ++candidate ) {
                                PruneStruct current( candidate );
                                std::string mangleName;
                                {
                                        Type * newType = candidate->expr->get_result()->clone();
                                        candidate->env.apply( newType );
                                        mangleName = SymTab::Mangler::mangle( newType );
                                        delete newType;
                                }
                                std::map< std::string, PruneStruct >::iterator mapPlace = selected.find( mangleName );
                                if ( mapPlace != selected.end() ) {
                                        if ( candidate->cost < mapPlace->second.candidate->cost ) {
                                                PRINT(
                                                        std::cerr << "cost " << candidate->cost << " beats " << mapPlace->second.candidate->cost << std::endl;
                                                )
                                                selected[ mangleName ] = current;
                                        } else if ( candidate->cost == mapPlace->second.candidate->cost ) {
                                                // if one of the candidates contains a deleted identifier, can pick the other, since
                                                // deleted expressions should not be ambiguous if there is another option that is at least as good
                                                if ( findDeletedExpr( candidate->expr ) ) {
                                                        // do nothing
                                                        PRINT( std::cerr << "candidate is deleted" << std::endl; )
                                                } else if ( findDeletedExpr( mapPlace->second.candidate->expr ) ) {
                                                        PRINT( std::cerr << "current is deleted" << std::endl; )
                                                        selected[ mangleName ] = current;
                                                } else {
                                                        PRINT(
                                                                std::cerr << "marking ambiguous" << std::endl;
                                                        )
                                                        mapPlace->second.isAmbiguous = true;
                                                }
                                        } else {
                                                PRINT(
                                                        std::cerr << "cost " << candidate->cost << " loses to " << mapPlace->second.candidate->cost << std::endl;
                                                )
                                        }
                                } else {
                                        selected[ mangleName ] = current;
                                }
                        }

                        // accept the alternatives that were unambiguous
                        for ( std::map< std::string, PruneStruct >::iterator target = selected.begin(); target != selected.end(); ++target ) {
                                if ( ! target->second.isAmbiguous ) {
                                        Alternative &alt = *target->second.candidate;
                                        alt.env.applyFree( alt.expr->get_result() );
                                        *out++ = alt;
                                }
                        }
                }

                void renameTypes( Expression *expr ) {
                        renameTyVars( expr->result );
                }
        } // namespace

        void referenceToRvalueConversion( Expression *& expr, Cost & cost ) {
                if ( dynamic_cast< ReferenceType * >( expr->get_result() ) ) {
                        // cast away reference from expr
                        expr = new CastExpr( expr, expr->get_result()->stripReferences()->clone() );
                        cost.incReference();
                }
        }

        template< typename InputIterator, typename OutputIterator >
        void AlternativeFinder::findSubExprs( InputIterator begin, InputIterator end, OutputIterator out ) {
                while ( begin != end ) {
                        AlternativeFinder finder( indexer, env );
                        finder.findWithAdjustment( *begin );
                        // XXX  either this
                        //Designators::fixDesignations( finder, (*begin++)->get_argName() );
                        // or XXX this
                        begin++;
                        PRINT(
                                std::cerr << "findSubExprs" << std::endl;
                                printAlts( finder.alternatives, std::cerr );
                        )
                        *out++ = finder;
                }
        }

        AlternativeFinder::AlternativeFinder( const SymTab::Indexer &indexer, const TypeEnvironment &env )
                : indexer( indexer ), env( env ) {
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::find( Expression *expr, ResolvMode mode ) {
                PassVisitor<Finder> finder( *this );
                expr->accept( finder );
                if ( mode.failFast && alternatives.empty() ) {
                        PRINT(
                                std::cerr << "No reasonable alternatives for expression " << expr << std::endl;
                        )
                        SemanticError( expr, "No reasonable alternatives for expression " );
                }
                if ( mode.resolveAssns || mode.prune ) {
                        // trim candidates just to those where the assertions resolve
                        // - necessary pre-requisite to pruning
                        AltList candidates;
                        for ( unsigned i = 0; i < alternatives.size(); ++i ) {
                                resolveAssertions( alternatives[i], indexer, candidates );
                        }
                        // fail early if none such
                        if ( mode.failFast && candidates.empty() ) {
                                std::ostringstream stream;
                                stream << "No resolvable alternatives for expression " << expr << "\n"
                                       << "Alternatives with failing assertions are:\n";
                                printAlts( alternatives, stream, 1 );
                                SemanticError( expr->location, stream.str() );
                        }
                        // reset alternatives
                        alternatives = std::move( candidates );
                }
                if ( mode.prune ) {
                        auto oldsize = alternatives.size();
                        PRINT(
                                std::cerr << "alternatives before prune:" << std::endl;
                                printAlts( alternatives, std::cerr );
                        )
                        AltList pruned;
                        pruneAlternatives( alternatives.begin(), alternatives.end(), back_inserter( pruned ) );
                        if ( mode.failFast && pruned.empty() ) {
                                std::ostringstream stream;
                                AltList winners;
                                findMinCost( alternatives.begin(), alternatives.end(), back_inserter( winners ) );
                                stream << "Cannot choose between " << winners.size() << " alternatives for expression\n";
                                expr->print( stream );
                                stream << " Alternatives are:\n";
                                printAlts( winners, stream, 1 );
                                SemanticError( expr->location, stream.str() );
                        }
                        alternatives = move(pruned);
                        PRINT(
                                std::cerr << "there are " << oldsize << " alternatives before elimination" << std::endl;
                        )
                        PRINT(
                                std::cerr << "there are " << alternatives.size() << " alternatives after elimination" << std::endl;
                        )
                }
                // adjust types after pruning so that types substituted by pruneAlternatives are correctly adjusted
                if ( mode.adjust ) {
                        for ( Alternative& i : alternatives ) {
                                adjustExprType( i.expr->get_result(), i.env, indexer );
                        }
                }

                // Central location to handle gcc extension keyword, etc. for all expression types.
                for ( Alternative &iter: alternatives ) {
                        iter.expr->set_extension( expr->get_extension() );
                        iter.expr->location = expr->location;
                } // for
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::findWithAdjustment( Expression *expr ) {
                find( expr, ResolvMode::withAdjustment() );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::findWithoutPrune( Expression * expr ) {
                find( expr, ResolvMode::withoutPrune() );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::maybeFind( Expression * expr ) {
                find( expr, ResolvMode::withoutFailFast() );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::addAnonConversions( const Alternative & alt ) {
                // adds anonymous member interpretations whenever an aggregate value type is seen.
                // it's okay for the aggregate expression to have reference type -- cast it to the base type to treat the aggregate as the referenced value
                std::unique_ptr<Expression> aggrExpr( alt.expr->clone() );
                alt.env.apply( aggrExpr->result );
                Type * aggrType = aggrExpr->result;
                if ( dynamic_cast< ReferenceType * >( aggrType ) ) {
                        aggrType = aggrType->stripReferences();
                        aggrExpr.reset( new CastExpr( aggrExpr.release(), aggrType->clone() ) );
                }

                if ( StructInstType *structInst = dynamic_cast< StructInstType* >( aggrExpr->result ) ) {
                        addAggMembers( structInst, aggrExpr.get(), alt, alt.cost+Cost::safe, "" );
                } else if ( UnionInstType *unionInst = dynamic_cast< UnionInstType* >( aggrExpr->result ) ) {
                        addAggMembers( unionInst, aggrExpr.get(), alt, alt.cost+Cost::safe, "" );
                } // if
        }

        template< typename StructOrUnionType >
        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::addAggMembers( StructOrUnionType *aggInst, Expression *expr, const Alternative& alt, const Cost &newCost, const std::string & name ) {
                std::list< Declaration* > members;
                aggInst->lookup( name, members );

                for ( Declaration * decl : members ) {
                        if ( DeclarationWithType *dwt = dynamic_cast< DeclarationWithType* >( decl ) ) {
                                // addAnonAlternatives uses vector::push_back, which invalidates references to existing elements, so
                                // can't construct in place and use vector::back
                                Alternative newAlt{ alt, new MemberExpr{ dwt, expr->clone() }, newCost };
                                renameTypes( newAlt.expr );
                                addAnonConversions( newAlt ); // add anonymous member interpretations whenever an aggregate value type is seen as a member expression.
                                alternatives.push_back( std::move(newAlt) );
                        } else {
                                assert( false );
                        }
                }
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::addTupleMembers( TupleType *tupleType, Expression *expr,                        const Alternative &alt, const Cost &newCost, Expression *member ) {
                if ( ConstantExpr * constantExpr = dynamic_cast< ConstantExpr * >( member ) ) {
                        // get the value of the constant expression as an int, must be between 0 and the length of the tuple type to have meaning
                        auto val = constantExpr->intValue();
                        std::string tmp;
                        if ( val >= 0 && (unsigned long long)val < tupleType->size() ) {
                                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                        alt, new TupleIndexExpr( expr->clone(), val ), newCost } );
                        } // if
                } // if
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( ApplicationExpr *applicationExpr ) {
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ applicationExpr->clone(), env } );
        }

        Cost computeConversionCost( Type * actualType, Type * formalType, const SymTab::Indexer &indexer, const TypeEnvironment & env ) {
                PRINT(
                        std::cerr << std::endl << "converting ";
                        actualType->print( std::cerr, 8 );
                        std::cerr << std::endl << " to ";
                        formalType->print( std::cerr, 8 );
                        std::cerr << std::endl << "environment is: ";
                        env.print( std::cerr, 8 );
                        std::cerr << std::endl;
                )
                Cost convCost = conversionCost( actualType, formalType, indexer, env );
                PRINT(
                        std::cerr << std::endl << "cost is " << convCost << std::endl;
                )
                if ( convCost == Cost::infinity ) {
                        return convCost;
                }
                convCost.incPoly( polyCost( formalType, env, indexer ) + polyCost( actualType, env, indexer ) );
                PRINT(
                        std::cerr << "cost with polycost is " << convCost << std::endl;
                )
                return convCost;
        }

        Cost computeExpressionConversionCost( Expression *& actualExpr, Type * formalType, const SymTab::Indexer &indexer, const TypeEnvironment & env ) {
                Cost convCost = computeConversionCost( actualExpr->result, formalType, indexer, env );

                // if there is a non-zero conversion cost, ignoring poly cost, then the expression requires conversion.
                // ignore poly cost for now, since this requires resolution of the cast to infer parameters and this
                // does not currently work for the reason stated below.
                Cost tmpCost = convCost;
                tmpCost.incPoly( -tmpCost.get_polyCost() );
                if ( tmpCost != Cost::zero ) {
                        Type *newType = formalType->clone();
                        env.apply( newType );
                        actualExpr = new CastExpr( actualExpr, newType );
                        // xxx - SHOULD be able to resolve this cast, but at the moment pointers are not castable to zero_t, but are implicitly convertible. This is clearly
                        // inconsistent, once this is fixed it should be possible to resolve the cast.
                        // xxx - this isn't working, it appears because type1 (the formal type) is seen as widenable, but it shouldn't be, because this makes the conversion from DT* to DT* since commontype(zero_t, DT*) is DT*, rather than just nothing.

                        // AlternativeFinder finder( indexer, env );
                        // finder.findWithAdjustment( actualExpr );
                        // assertf( finder.get_alternatives().size() > 0, "Somehow castable expression failed to find alternatives." );
                        // assertf( finder.get_alternatives().size() == 1, "Somehow got multiple alternatives for known cast expression." );
                        // Alternative & alt = finder.get_alternatives().front();
                        // delete actualExpr;
                        // actualExpr = alt.expr->clone();
                }
                return convCost;
        }

        Cost computeApplicationConversionCost( Alternative &alt, const SymTab::Indexer &indexer ) {
                ApplicationExpr *appExpr = strict_dynamic_cast< ApplicationExpr* >( alt.expr );
                PointerType *pointer = strict_dynamic_cast< PointerType* >( appExpr->function->result );
                FunctionType *function = strict_dynamic_cast< FunctionType* >( pointer->base );

                Cost convCost = Cost::zero;
                std::list< DeclarationWithType* >& formals = function->parameters;
                std::list< DeclarationWithType* >::iterator formal = formals.begin();
                std::list< Expression* >& actuals = appExpr->args;

                for ( Expression*& actualExpr : actuals ) {
                        Type * actualType = actualExpr->result;
                        PRINT(
                                std::cerr << "actual expression:" << std::endl;
                                actualExpr->print( std::cerr, 8 );
                                std::cerr << "--- results are" << std::endl;
                                actualType->print( std::cerr, 8 );
                        )
                        if ( formal == formals.end() ) {
                                if ( function->isVarArgs ) {
                                        convCost.incUnsafe();
                                        PRINT( std::cerr << "end of formals with varargs function: inc unsafe: " << convCost << std::endl; ; )
                                        // convert reference-typed expressions to value-typed expressions
                                        referenceToRvalueConversion( actualExpr, convCost );
                                        continue;
                                } else {
                                        return Cost::infinity;
                                }
                        }
                        if ( DefaultArgExpr * def = dynamic_cast< DefaultArgExpr * >( actualExpr ) ) {
                                // default arguments should be free - don't include conversion cost.
                                // Unwrap them here because they are not relevant to the rest of the system.
                                actualExpr = def->expr;
                                ++formal;
                                continue;
                        }
                        // mark conversion cost to formal and also specialization cost of formal type
                        Type * formalType = (*formal)->get_type();
                        convCost += computeExpressionConversionCost( actualExpr, formalType, indexer, alt.env );
                        convCost.decSpec( specCost( formalType ) );
                        ++formal; // can't be in for-loop update because of the continue
                }
                if ( formal != formals.end() ) {
                        return Cost::infinity;
                }

                // mark specialization cost of return types
                for ( DeclarationWithType* returnVal : function->returnVals ) {
                        convCost.decSpec( specCost( returnVal->get_type() ) );
                }

                // mark type variable and specialization cost of forall clause
                convCost.incVar( function->forall.size() );
                for ( TypeDecl* td : function->forall ) {
                        convCost.decSpec( td->assertions.size() );
                }

                // xxx -- replace with new costs in resolver
                for ( InferredParams::const_iterator assert = appExpr->get_inferParams().begin(); assert != appExpr->get_inferParams().end(); ++assert ) {
                        convCost += computeConversionCost( assert->second.actualType, assert->second.formalType, indexer, alt.env );
                }

                return convCost;
        }

        /// Adds type variables to the open variable set and marks their assertions
        void makeUnifiableVars( Type *type, OpenVarSet &unifiableVars, AssertionSet &needAssertions ) {
                for ( Type::ForallList::const_iterator tyvar = type->forall.begin(); tyvar != type->forall.end(); ++tyvar ) {
                        unifiableVars[ (*tyvar)->get_name() ] = TypeDecl::Data{ *tyvar };
                        for ( std::list< DeclarationWithType* >::iterator assert = (*tyvar)->assertions.begin(); assert != (*tyvar)->assertions.end(); ++assert ) {
                                needAssertions[ *assert ].isUsed = true;
                        }
///     needAssertions.insert( needAssertions.end(), (*tyvar)->get_assertions().begin(), (*tyvar)->get_assertions().end() );
                }
        }

//      template< typename ForwardIterator, typename OutputIterator >
//      void inferRecursive( ForwardIterator begin, ForwardIterator end, const Alternative &newAlt, OpenVarSet &openVars, const SymTab::Indexer &decls, const AssertionSet &newNeed, int level, const SymTab::Indexer &indexer, OutputIterator out ) {
//              if ( newAlt.cost == Cost::infinity ) return; // don't proceed down this dead end
//              if ( begin == end ) {
//                      if ( newNeed.empty() ) {
//                              PRINT(
//                                      std::cerr << "all assertions satisfied, output alternative: ";
//                                      newAlt.print( std::cerr );
//                                      std::cerr << std::endl;
//                              );
//                              *out++ = newAlt;
//                              return;
//                      } else if ( level >= recursionLimit ) {
//                              SemanticError( newAlt.expr->location, "Too many recursive assertions" );
//                      } else {
//                              AssertionSet newerNeed;
//                              PRINT(
//                                      std::cerr << "recursing with new set:" << std::endl;
//                                      printAssertionSet( newNeed, std::cerr, 8 );
//                              )
//                              inferRecursive( newNeed.begin(), newNeed.end(), newAlt, openVars, decls, newerNeed, level+1, indexer, out );
//                              return;
//                      }
//              }

//              ForwardIterator cur = begin++;
//              if ( ! cur->second.isUsed ) {
//                      inferRecursive( begin, end, newAlt, openVars, decls, newNeed, level, indexer, out );
//                      return; // xxx - should this continue? previously this wasn't here, and it looks like it should be
//              }
//              DeclarationWithType *curDecl = cur->first;

//              PRINT(
//                      std::cerr << "inferRecursive: assertion is ";
//                      curDecl->print( std::cerr );
//                      std::cerr << std::endl;
//              )
//              std::list< SymTab::Indexer::IdData > candidates;
//              decls.lookupId( curDecl->get_name(), candidates );
// ///   if ( candidates.empty() ) { std::cerr << "no candidates!" << std::endl; }
//              for ( const auto & data : candidates ) {
//                      DeclarationWithType * candidate = data.id;
//                      PRINT(
//                              std::cerr << "inferRecursive: candidate is ";
//                              candidate->print( std::cerr );
//                              std::cerr << std::endl;
//                      )

//                      AssertionSet newHave, newerNeed( newNeed );
//                      TypeEnvironment newEnv( newAlt.env );
//                      OpenVarSet newOpenVars( openVars );
//                      Type *adjType = candidate->get_type()->clone();
//                      adjustExprType( adjType, newEnv, indexer );
//                      renameTyVars( adjType );
//                      PRINT(
//                              std::cerr << "unifying ";
//                              curDecl->get_type()->print( std::cerr );
//                              std::cerr << " with ";
//                              adjType->print( std::cerr );
//                              std::cerr << std::endl;
//                      )
//                      if ( unify( curDecl->get_type(), adjType, newEnv, newerNeed, newHave, newOpenVars, indexer ) ) {
//                              PRINT(
//                                      std::cerr << "success!" << std::endl;
//                              )
//                              SymTab::Indexer newDecls( decls );
//                              addToIndexer( newHave, newDecls );
//                              Alternative newerAlt( newAlt );
//                              newerAlt.env = newEnv;
//                              assertf( candidate->get_uniqueId(), "Assertion candidate does not have a unique ID: %s", toString( candidate ).c_str() );

//                              // everything with an empty idChain was pulled in by the current assertion.
//                              // add current assertion's idChain + current assertion's ID so that the correct inferParameters can be found.
//                              for ( auto & a : newerNeed ) {
//                                      if ( a.second.idChain.empty() ) {
//                                              a.second.idChain = cur->second.idChain;
//                                              a.second.idChain.push_back( curDecl->get_uniqueId() );
//                                      }
//                              }

//                              Expression *varExpr = data.combine( newerAlt.cvtCost );
//                              delete varExpr->get_result();
//                              varExpr->set_result( adjType->clone() );
//                              PRINT(
//                                      std::cerr << "satisfying assertion " << curDecl->get_uniqueId() << " ";
//                                      curDecl->print( std::cerr );
//                                      std::cerr << " with declaration " << candidate->get_uniqueId() << " ";
//                                      candidate->print( std::cerr );
//                                      std::cerr << std::endl;
//                              )
//                              // follow the current assertion's ID chain to find the correct set of inferred parameters to add the candidate to (i.e. the set of inferred parameters belonging to the entity which requested the assertion parameter).
//                              InferredParams * inferParameters = &newerAlt.expr->get_inferParams();
//                              for ( UniqueId id : cur->second.idChain ) {
//                                      inferParameters = (*inferParameters)[ id ].inferParams.get();
//                              }
//                              // XXX: this is a memory leak, but adjType can't be deleted because it might contain assertions
//                              (*inferParameters)[ curDecl->get_uniqueId() ] = ParamEntry( candidate->get_uniqueId(), adjType->clone(), curDecl->get_type()->clone(), varExpr );
//                              inferRecursive( begin, end, newerAlt, newOpenVars, newDecls, newerNeed, level, indexer, out );
//                      } else {
//                              delete adjType;
//                      }
//              }
//      }

        template< typename OutputIterator >
        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::inferParameters( const AssertionSet &, AssertionSet &, const Alternative &newAlt, OpenVarSet &, OutputIterator out ) {
                // SymTab::Indexer decls( indexer );
                // addToIndexer( have, decls );
                // AssertionSet newNeed;
                // PRINT(
                //      std::cerr << "env is: " << std::endl;
                //      newAlt.env.print( std::cerr, 0 );
                //      std::cerr << std::endl;
                // )

                // inferRecursive( need.begin(), need.end(), newAlt, openVars, decls, newNeed, 0, indexer, out );

                // add to output list, assertion resolution is defered
                *out++ = newAlt;
        }

        /// Gets a default value from an initializer, nullptr if not present
        ConstantExpr* getDefaultValue( Initializer* init ) {
                if ( SingleInit* si = dynamic_cast<SingleInit*>( init ) ) {
                        if ( CastExpr* ce = dynamic_cast<CastExpr*>( si->value ) ) {
                                return dynamic_cast<ConstantExpr*>( ce->arg );
                        } else {
                                return dynamic_cast<ConstantExpr*>( si->value );
                        }
                }
                return nullptr;
        }

        /// State to iteratively build a match of parameter expressions to arguments
        struct ArgPack {
                std::size_t parent;                ///< Index of parent pack
                std::unique_ptr<Expression> expr;  ///< The argument stored here
                Cost cost;                         ///< The cost of this argument
                TypeEnvironment env;               ///< Environment for this pack
                AssertionSet need;                 ///< Assertions outstanding for this pack
                AssertionSet have;                 ///< Assertions found for this pack
                OpenVarSet openVars;               ///< Open variables for this pack
                unsigned nextArg;                  ///< Index of next argument in arguments list
                unsigned tupleStart;               ///< Number of tuples that start at this index
                unsigned nextExpl;                 ///< Index of next exploded element
                unsigned explAlt;                  ///< Index of alternative for nextExpl > 0

                ArgPack()
                        : parent(0), expr(), cost(Cost::zero), env(), need(), have(), openVars(), nextArg(0),
                          tupleStart(0), nextExpl(0), explAlt(0) {}

                ArgPack(const TypeEnvironment& env, const AssertionSet& need, const AssertionSet& have,
                                const OpenVarSet& openVars)
                        : parent(0), expr(), cost(Cost::zero), env(env), need(need), have(have),
                          openVars(openVars), nextArg(0), tupleStart(0), nextExpl(0), explAlt(0) {}

                ArgPack(std::size_t parent, Expression* expr, TypeEnvironment&& env, AssertionSet&& need,
                                AssertionSet&& have, OpenVarSet&& openVars, unsigned nextArg,
                                unsigned tupleStart = 0, Cost cost = Cost::zero, unsigned nextExpl = 0,
                                unsigned explAlt = 0 )
                        : parent(parent), expr(expr->clone()), cost(cost), env(move(env)), need(move(need)),
                          have(move(have)), openVars(move(openVars)), nextArg(nextArg), tupleStart(tupleStart),
                          nextExpl(nextExpl), explAlt(explAlt) {}

                ArgPack(const ArgPack& o, TypeEnvironment&& env, AssertionSet&& need, AssertionSet&& have,
                                OpenVarSet&& openVars, unsigned nextArg, Cost added )
                        : parent(o.parent), expr(o.expr ? o.expr->clone() : nullptr), cost(o.cost + added),
                          env(move(env)), need(move(need)), have(move(have)), openVars(move(openVars)),
                          nextArg(nextArg), tupleStart(o.tupleStart), nextExpl(0), explAlt(0) {}

                /// true iff this pack is in the middle of an exploded argument
                bool hasExpl() const { return nextExpl > 0; }

                /// Gets the list of exploded alternatives for this pack
                const ExplodedActual& getExpl( const ExplodedArgs& args ) const {
                        return args[nextArg-1][explAlt];
                }

                /// Ends a tuple expression, consolidating the appropriate actuals
                void endTuple( const std::vector<ArgPack>& packs ) {
                        // add all expressions in tuple to list, summing cost
                        std::list<Expression*> exprs;
                        const ArgPack* pack = this;
                        if ( expr ) { exprs.push_front( expr.release() ); }
                        while ( pack->tupleStart == 0 ) {
                                pack = &packs[pack->parent];
                                exprs.push_front( pack->expr->clone() );
                                cost += pack->cost;
                        }
                        // reset pack to appropriate tuple
                        expr.reset( new TupleExpr( exprs ) );
                        tupleStart = pack->tupleStart - 1;
                        parent = pack->parent;
                }
        };

        /// Instantiates an argument to match a formal, returns false if no results left
        bool instantiateArgument( Type* formalType, Initializer* initializer,
                        const ExplodedArgs& args, std::vector<ArgPack>& results, std::size_t& genStart,
                        const SymTab::Indexer& indexer, unsigned nTuples = 0 ) {
                if ( TupleType * tupleType = dynamic_cast<TupleType*>( formalType ) ) {
                        // formalType is a TupleType - group actuals into a TupleExpr
                        ++nTuples;
                        for ( Type* type : *tupleType ) {
                                // xxx - dropping initializer changes behaviour from previous, but seems correct
                                // ^^^ need to handle the case where a tuple has a default argument
                                if ( ! instantiateArgument(
                                                type, nullptr, args, results, genStart, indexer, nTuples ) )
                                        return false;
                                nTuples = 0;
                        }
                        // re-consititute tuples for final generation
                        for ( auto i = genStart; i < results.size(); ++i ) {
                                results[i].endTuple( results );
                        }
                        return true;
                } else if ( TypeInstType * ttype = Tuples::isTtype( formalType ) ) {
                        // formalType is a ttype, consumes all remaining arguments
                        // xxx - mixing default arguments with variadic??

                        // completed tuples; will be spliced to end of results to finish
                        std::vector<ArgPack> finalResults{};

                        // iterate until all results completed
                        std::size_t genEnd;
                        ++nTuples;
                        do {
                                genEnd = results.size();

                                // add another argument to results
                                for ( std::size_t i = genStart; i < genEnd; ++i ) {
                                        auto nextArg = results[i].nextArg;

                                        // use next element of exploded tuple if present
                                        if ( results[i].hasExpl() ) {
                                                const ExplodedActual& expl = results[i].getExpl( args );

                                                unsigned nextExpl = results[i].nextExpl + 1;
                                                if ( nextExpl == expl.exprs.size() ) {
                                                        nextExpl = 0;
                                                }

                                                results.emplace_back(
                                                        i, expl.exprs[results[i].nextExpl].get(), copy(results[i].env),
                                                        copy(results[i].need), copy(results[i].have),
                                                        copy(results[i].openVars), nextArg, nTuples, Cost::zero, nextExpl,
                                                        results[i].explAlt );

                                                continue;
                                        }

                                        // finish result when out of arguments
                                        if ( nextArg >= args.size() ) {
                                                ArgPack newResult{
                                                        results[i].env, results[i].need, results[i].have,
                                                        results[i].openVars };
                                                newResult.nextArg = nextArg;
                                                Type* argType;

                                                if ( nTuples > 0 || ! results[i].expr ) {
                                                        // first iteration or no expression to clone,
                                                        // push empty tuple expression
                                                        newResult.parent = i;
                                                        std::list<Expression*> emptyList;
                                                        newResult.expr.reset( new TupleExpr( emptyList ) );
                                                        argType = newResult.expr->get_result();
                                                } else {
                                                        // clone result to collect tuple
                                                        newResult.parent = results[i].parent;
                                                        newResult.cost = results[i].cost;
                                                        newResult.tupleStart = results[i].tupleStart;
                                                        newResult.expr.reset( results[i].expr->clone() );
                                                        argType = newResult.expr->get_result();

                                                        if ( results[i].tupleStart > 0 && Tuples::isTtype( argType ) ) {
                                                                // the case where a ttype value is passed directly is special,
                                                                // e.g. for argument forwarding purposes
                                                                // xxx - what if passing multiple arguments, last of which is
                                                                //       ttype?
                                                                // xxx - what would happen if unify was changed so that unifying
                                                                //       tuple
                                                                // types flattened both before unifying lists? then pass in
                                                                // TupleType (ttype) below.
                                                                --newResult.tupleStart;
                                                        } else {
                                                                // collapse leftover arguments into tuple
                                                                newResult.endTuple( results );
                                                                argType = newResult.expr->get_result();
                                                        }
                                                }

                                                // check unification for ttype before adding to final
                                                if ( unify( ttype, argType, newResult.env, newResult.need, newResult.have,
                                                                newResult.openVars, indexer ) ) {
                                                        finalResults.push_back( move(newResult) );
                                                }

                                                continue;
                                        }

                                        // add each possible next argument
                                        for ( std::size_t j = 0; j < args[nextArg].size(); ++j ) {
                                                const ExplodedActual& expl = args[nextArg][j];

                                                // fresh copies of parent parameters for this iteration
                                                TypeEnvironment env = results[i].env;
                                                OpenVarSet openVars = results[i].openVars;

                                                env.addActual( expl.env, openVars );

                                                // skip empty tuple arguments by (near-)cloning parent into next gen
                                                if ( expl.exprs.empty() ) {
                                                        results.emplace_back(
                                                                results[i], move(env), copy(results[i].need),
                                                                copy(results[i].have), move(openVars), nextArg + 1, expl.cost );

                                                        continue;
                                                }

                                                // add new result
                                                results.emplace_back(
                                                        i, expl.exprs.front().get(), move(env), copy(results[i].need),
                                                        copy(results[i].have), move(openVars), nextArg + 1,
                                                        nTuples, expl.cost, expl.exprs.size() == 1 ? 0 : 1, j );
                                        }
                                }

                                // reset for next round
                                genStart = genEnd;
                                nTuples = 0;
                        } while ( genEnd != results.size() );

                        // splice final results onto results
                        for ( std::size_t i = 0; i < finalResults.size(); ++i ) {
                                results.push_back( move(finalResults[i]) );
                        }
                        return ! finalResults.empty();
                }

                // iterate each current subresult
                std::size_t genEnd = results.size();
                for ( std::size_t i = genStart; i < genEnd; ++i ) {
                        auto nextArg = results[i].nextArg;

                        // use remainder of exploded tuple if present
                        if ( results[i].hasExpl() ) {
                                const ExplodedActual& expl = results[i].getExpl( args );
                                Expression* expr = expl.exprs[results[i].nextExpl].get();

                                TypeEnvironment env = results[i].env;
                                AssertionSet need = results[i].need, have = results[i].have;
                                OpenVarSet openVars = results[i].openVars;

                                Type* actualType = expr->get_result();

                                PRINT(
                                        std::cerr << "formal type is ";
                                        formalType->print( std::cerr );
                                        std::cerr << std::endl << "actual type is ";
                                        actualType->print( std::cerr );
                                        std::cerr << std::endl;
                                )

                                if ( unify( formalType, actualType, env, need, have, openVars, indexer ) ) {
                                        unsigned nextExpl = results[i].nextExpl + 1;
                                        if ( nextExpl == expl.exprs.size() ) {
                                                nextExpl = 0;
                                        }

                                        results.emplace_back(
                                                i, expr, move(env), move(need), move(have), move(openVars), nextArg,
                                                nTuples, Cost::zero, nextExpl, results[i].explAlt );
                                }

                                continue;
                        }

                        // use default initializers if out of arguments
                        if ( nextArg >= args.size() ) {
                                if ( ConstantExpr* cnstExpr = getDefaultValue( initializer ) ) {
                                        if ( Constant* cnst = dynamic_cast<Constant*>( cnstExpr->get_constant() ) ) {
                                                TypeEnvironment env = results[i].env;
                                                AssertionSet need = results[i].need, have = results[i].have;
                                                OpenVarSet openVars = results[i].openVars;

                                                if ( unify( formalType, cnst->get_type(), env, need, have, openVars,
                                                                indexer ) ) {
                                                        results.emplace_back(
                                                                i, new DefaultArgExpr( cnstExpr ), move(env), move(need), move(have),
                                                                move(openVars), nextArg, nTuples );
                                                }
                                        }
                                }

                                continue;
                        }

                        // Check each possible next argument
                        for ( std::size_t j = 0; j < args[nextArg].size(); ++j ) {
                                const ExplodedActual& expl = args[nextArg][j];

                                // fresh copies of parent parameters for this iteration
                                TypeEnvironment env = results[i].env;
                                AssertionSet need = results[i].need, have = results[i].have;
                                OpenVarSet openVars = results[i].openVars;

                                env.addActual( expl.env, openVars );

                                // skip empty tuple arguments by (near-)cloning parent into next gen
                                if ( expl.exprs.empty() ) {
                                        results.emplace_back(
                                                results[i], move(env), move(need), move(have), move(openVars),
                                                nextArg + 1, expl.cost );

                                        continue;
                                }

                                // consider only first exploded actual
                                Expression* expr = expl.exprs.front().get();
                                Type* actualType = expr->result->clone();

                                PRINT(
                                        std::cerr << "formal type is ";
                                        formalType->print( std::cerr );
                                        std::cerr << std::endl << "actual type is ";
                                        actualType->print( std::cerr );
                                        std::cerr << std::endl;
                                )

                                // attempt to unify types
                                if ( unify( formalType, actualType, env, need, have, openVars, indexer ) ) {
                                        // add new result
                                        results.emplace_back(
                                                i, expr, move(env), move(need), move(have), move(openVars), nextArg + 1,
                                                nTuples, expl.cost, expl.exprs.size() == 1 ? 0 : 1, j );
                                }
                        }
                }

                // reset for next parameter
                genStart = genEnd;

                return genEnd != results.size();
        }

        template<typename OutputIterator>
        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::validateFunctionAlternative( const Alternative &func, ArgPack& result,
                        const std::vector<ArgPack>& results, OutputIterator out ) {
                ApplicationExpr *appExpr = new ApplicationExpr( func.expr->clone() );
                // sum cost and accumulate actuals
                std::list<Expression*>& args = appExpr->args;
                Cost cost = func.cost;
                const ArgPack* pack = &result;
                while ( pack->expr ) {
                        args.push_front( pack->expr->clone() );
                        cost += pack->cost;
                        pack = &results[pack->parent];
                }
                // build and validate new alternative
                Alternative newAlt{ appExpr, result.env, result.openVars, result.need, cost };
                PRINT(
                        std::cerr << "instantiate function success: " << appExpr << std::endl;
                        std::cerr << "need assertions:" << std::endl;
                        printAssertionSet( result.need, std::cerr, 8 );
                )
                inferParameters( result.need, result.have, newAlt, result.openVars, out );
        }

        template<typename OutputIterator>
        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::makeFunctionAlternatives( const Alternative &func,
                        FunctionType *funcType, const ExplodedArgs &args, OutputIterator out ) {
                OpenVarSet funcOpenVars;
                AssertionSet funcNeed, funcHave;
                TypeEnvironment funcEnv( func.env );
                makeUnifiableVars( funcType, funcOpenVars, funcNeed );
                // add all type variables as open variables now so that those not used in the parameter
                // list are still considered open.
                funcEnv.add( funcType->forall );

                if ( targetType && ! targetType->isVoid() && ! funcType->returnVals.empty() ) {
                        // attempt to narrow based on expected target type
                        Type * returnType = funcType->returnVals.front()->get_type();
                        if ( ! unify( returnType, targetType, funcEnv, funcNeed, funcHave, funcOpenVars,
                                        indexer ) ) {
                                // unification failed, don't pursue this function alternative
                                return;
                        }
                }

                // iteratively build matches, one parameter at a time
                std::vector<ArgPack> results;
                results.push_back( ArgPack{ funcEnv, funcNeed, funcHave, funcOpenVars } );
                std::size_t genStart = 0;

                for ( DeclarationWithType* formal : funcType->parameters ) {
                        ObjectDecl* obj = strict_dynamic_cast< ObjectDecl* >( formal );
                        if ( ! instantiateArgument(
                                        obj->type, obj->init, args, results, genStart, indexer ) )
                                return;
                }

                if ( funcType->get_isVarArgs() ) {
                        // append any unused arguments to vararg pack
                        std::size_t genEnd;
                        do {
                                genEnd = results.size();

                                // iterate results
                                for ( std::size_t i = genStart; i < genEnd; ++i ) {
                                        auto nextArg = results[i].nextArg;

                                        // use remainder of exploded tuple if present
                                        if ( results[i].hasExpl() ) {
                                                const ExplodedActual& expl = results[i].getExpl( args );

                                                unsigned nextExpl = results[i].nextExpl + 1;
                                                if ( nextExpl == expl.exprs.size() ) {
                                                        nextExpl = 0;
                                                }

                                                results.emplace_back(
                                                        i, expl.exprs[results[i].nextExpl].get(), copy(results[i].env),
                                                        copy(results[i].need), copy(results[i].have),
                                                        copy(results[i].openVars), nextArg, 0, Cost::zero, nextExpl,
                                                        results[i].explAlt );

                                                continue;
                                        }

                                        // finish result when out of arguments
                                        if ( nextArg >= args.size() ) {
                                                validateFunctionAlternative( func, results[i], results, out );

                                                continue;
                                        }

                                        // add each possible next argument
                                        for ( std::size_t j = 0; j < args[nextArg].size(); ++j ) {
                                                const ExplodedActual& expl = args[nextArg][j];

                                                // fresh copies of parent parameters for this iteration
                                                TypeEnvironment env = results[i].env;
                                                OpenVarSet openVars = results[i].openVars;

                                                env.addActual( expl.env, openVars );

                                                // skip empty tuple arguments by (near-)cloning parent into next gen
                                                if ( expl.exprs.empty() ) {
                                                        results.emplace_back(
                                                                results[i], move(env), copy(results[i].need),
                                                                copy(results[i].have), move(openVars), nextArg + 1, expl.cost );

                                                        continue;
                                                }

                                                // add new result
                                                results.emplace_back(
                                                        i, expl.exprs.front().get(), move(env), copy(results[i].need),
                                                        copy(results[i].have), move(openVars), nextArg + 1, 0,
                                                        expl.cost, expl.exprs.size() == 1 ? 0 : 1, j );
                                        }
                                }

                                genStart = genEnd;
                        } while ( genEnd != results.size() );
                } else {
                        // filter out results that don't use all the arguments
                        for ( std::size_t i = genStart; i < results.size(); ++i ) {
                                ArgPack& result = results[i];
                                if ( ! result.hasExpl() && result.nextArg >= args.size() ) {
                                        validateFunctionAlternative( func, result, results, out );
                                }
                        }
                }
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( UntypedExpr *untypedExpr ) {
                AlternativeFinder funcFinder( indexer, env );
                funcFinder.findWithAdjustment( untypedExpr->function );
                // if there are no function alternatives, then proceeding is a waste of time.
                // xxx - findWithAdjustment throws, so this check and others like it shouldn't be necessary.
                if ( funcFinder.alternatives.empty() ) return;

                std::vector< AlternativeFinder > argAlternatives;
                altFinder.findSubExprs( untypedExpr->begin_args(), untypedExpr->end_args(),
                        back_inserter( argAlternatives ) );

                // take care of possible tuple assignments
                // if not tuple assignment, assignment is taken care of as a normal function call
                Tuples::handleTupleAssignment( altFinder, untypedExpr, argAlternatives );

                // find function operators
                static NameExpr *opExpr = new NameExpr( "?()" );
                AlternativeFinder funcOpFinder( indexer, env );
                // it's ok if there aren't any defined function ops
                funcOpFinder.maybeFind( opExpr );
                PRINT(
                        std::cerr << "known function ops:" << std::endl;
                        printAlts( funcOpFinder.alternatives, std::cerr, 1 );
                )

                // pre-explode arguments
                ExplodedArgs argExpansions;
                argExpansions.reserve( argAlternatives.size() );

                for ( const AlternativeFinder& arg : argAlternatives ) {
                        argExpansions.emplace_back();
                        auto& argE = argExpansions.back();
                        // argE.reserve( arg.alternatives.size() );

                        for ( const Alternative& actual : arg ) {
                                argE.emplace_back( actual, indexer );
                        }
                }

                AltList candidates;
                SemanticErrorException errors;
                for ( AltList::iterator func = funcFinder.alternatives.begin(); func != funcFinder.alternatives.end(); ++func ) {
                        try {
                                PRINT(
                                        std::cerr << "working on alternative: " << std::endl;
                                        func->print( std::cerr, 8 );
                                )
                                // check if the type is pointer to function
                                if ( PointerType *pointer = dynamic_cast< PointerType* >( func->expr->result->stripReferences() ) ) {
                                        if ( FunctionType *function = dynamic_cast< FunctionType* >( pointer->base ) ) {
                                                Alternative newFunc( *func );
                                                referenceToRvalueConversion( newFunc.expr, newFunc.cost );
                                                makeFunctionAlternatives( newFunc, function, argExpansions,
                                                        std::back_inserter( candidates ) );
                                        }
                                } else if ( TypeInstType *typeInst = dynamic_cast< TypeInstType* >( func->expr->result->stripReferences() ) ) { // handle ftype (e.g. *? on function pointer)
                                        if ( const EqvClass *eqvClass = func->env.lookup( typeInst->name ) ) {
                                                if ( FunctionType *function = dynamic_cast< FunctionType* >( eqvClass->type ) ) {
                                                        Alternative newFunc( *func );
                                                        referenceToRvalueConversion( newFunc.expr, newFunc.cost );
                                                        makeFunctionAlternatives( newFunc, function, argExpansions,
                                                                std::back_inserter( candidates ) );
                                                } // if
                                        } // if
                                }
                        } catch ( SemanticErrorException &e ) {
                                errors.append( e );
                        }
                } // for

                // try each function operator ?() with each function alternative
                if ( ! funcOpFinder.alternatives.empty() ) {
                        // add exploded function alternatives to front of argument list
                        std::vector<ExplodedActual> funcE;
                        funcE.reserve( funcFinder.alternatives.size() );
                        for ( const Alternative& actual : funcFinder ) {
                                funcE.emplace_back( actual, indexer );
                        }
                        argExpansions.insert( argExpansions.begin(), move(funcE) );

                        for ( AltList::iterator funcOp = funcOpFinder.alternatives.begin();
                                        funcOp != funcOpFinder.alternatives.end(); ++funcOp ) {
                                try {
                                        // check if type is a pointer to function
                                        if ( PointerType* pointer = dynamic_cast<PointerType*>(
                                                        funcOp->expr->result->stripReferences() ) ) {
                                                if ( FunctionType* function =
                                                                dynamic_cast<FunctionType*>( pointer->base ) ) {
                                                        Alternative newFunc( *funcOp );
                                                        referenceToRvalueConversion( newFunc.expr, newFunc.cost );
                                                        makeFunctionAlternatives( newFunc, function, argExpansions,
                                                                std::back_inserter( candidates ) );
                                                }
                                        }
                                } catch ( SemanticErrorException &e ) {
                                        errors.append( e );
                                }
                        }
                }

                // Implement SFINAE; resolution errors are only errors if there aren't any non-erroneous resolutions
                if ( candidates.empty() && ! errors.isEmpty() ) { throw errors; }

                // compute conversionsion costs
                for ( Alternative& withFunc : candidates ) {
                        Cost cvtCost = computeApplicationConversionCost( withFunc, indexer );

                        PRINT(
                                ApplicationExpr *appExpr = strict_dynamic_cast< ApplicationExpr* >( withFunc.expr );
                                PointerType *pointer = strict_dynamic_cast< PointerType* >( appExpr->function->result );
                                FunctionType *function = strict_dynamic_cast< FunctionType* >( pointer->base );
                                std::cerr << "Case +++++++++++++ " << appExpr->function << std::endl;
                                std::cerr << "formals are:" << std::endl;
                                printAll( function->parameters, std::cerr, 8 );
                                std::cerr << "actuals are:" << std::endl;
                                printAll( appExpr->args, std::cerr, 8 );
                                std::cerr << "bindings are:" << std::endl;
                                withFunc.env.print( std::cerr, 8 );
                                std::cerr << "cost is: " << withFunc.cost << std::endl;
                                std::cerr << "cost of conversion is:" << cvtCost << std::endl;
                        )
                        if ( cvtCost != Cost::infinity ) {
                                withFunc.cvtCost = cvtCost;
                                alternatives.push_back( withFunc );
                        } // if
                } // for

                candidates = move(alternatives);

                // use a new list so that alternatives are not examined by addAnonConversions twice.
                AltList winners;
                findMinCost( candidates.begin(), candidates.end(), std::back_inserter( winners ) );

                // function may return struct or union value, in which case we need to add alternatives
                // for implicitconversions to each of the anonymous members, must happen after findMinCost
                // since anon conversions are never the cheapest expression
                for ( const Alternative & alt : winners ) {
                        addAnonConversions( alt );
                }
                spliceBegin( alternatives, winners );

                if ( alternatives.empty() && targetType && ! targetType->isVoid() ) {
                        // xxx - this is a temporary hack. If resolution is unsuccessful with a target type, try again without a
                        // target type, since it will sometimes succeed when it wouldn't easily with target type binding. For example,
                        //   forall( otype T ) lvalue T ?[?]( T *, ptrdiff_t );
                        //   const char * x = "hello world";
                        //   unsigned char ch = x[0];
                        // Fails with simple return type binding. First, T is bound to unsigned char, then (x: const char *) is unified
                        // with unsigned char *, which fails because pointer base types must be unified exactly. The new resolver should
                        // fix this issue in a more robust way.
                        targetType = nullptr;
                        postvisit( untypedExpr );
                }
        }

        bool isLvalue( Expression *expr ) {
                // xxx - recurse into tuples?
                return expr->result && ( expr->result->get_lvalue() || dynamic_cast< ReferenceType * >( expr->result ) );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( AddressExpr *addressExpr ) {
                AlternativeFinder finder( indexer, env );
                finder.find( addressExpr->get_arg() );
                for ( Alternative& alt : finder.alternatives ) {
                        if ( isLvalue( alt.expr ) ) {
                                alternatives.push_back(
                                        Alternative{ alt, new AddressExpr( alt.expr->clone() ), alt.cost } );
                        } // if
                } // for
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( LabelAddressExpr * expr ) {
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ expr->clone(), env } );
        }

        Expression * restructureCast( Expression * argExpr, Type * toType, bool isGenerated ) {
                if ( argExpr->get_result()->size() > 1 && ! toType->isVoid() && ! dynamic_cast<ReferenceType *>( toType ) ) {
                        // Argument expression is a tuple and the target type is not void and not a reference type.
                        // Cast each member of the tuple to its corresponding target type, producing the tuple of those
                        // cast expressions. If there are more components of the tuple than components in the target type,
                        // then excess components do not come out in the result expression (but UniqueExprs ensure that
                        // side effects will still be done).
                        if ( Tuples::maybeImpureIgnoreUnique( argExpr ) ) {
                                // expressions which may contain side effects require a single unique instance of the expression.
                                argExpr = new UniqueExpr( argExpr );
                        }
                        std::list< Expression * > componentExprs;
                        for ( unsigned int i = 0; i < toType->size(); i++ ) {
                                // cast each component
                                TupleIndexExpr * idx = new TupleIndexExpr( argExpr->clone(), i );
                                componentExprs.push_back( restructureCast( idx, toType->getComponent( i ), isGenerated ) );
                        }
                        delete argExpr;
                        assert( componentExprs.size() > 0 );
                        // produce the tuple of casts
                        return new TupleExpr( componentExprs );
                } else {
                        // handle normally
                        CastExpr * ret = new CastExpr( argExpr, toType->clone() );
                        ret->isGenerated = isGenerated;
                        return ret;
                }
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( CastExpr *castExpr ) {
                Type *& toType = castExpr->get_result();
                assert( toType );
                toType = resolveTypeof( toType, indexer );
                SymTab::validateType( toType, &indexer );
                adjustExprType( toType, env, indexer );

                AlternativeFinder finder( indexer, env );
                finder.targetType = toType;
                finder.findWithAdjustment( castExpr->arg );

                AltList candidates;
                for ( Alternative & alt : finder.alternatives ) {
                        AssertionSet needAssertions( alt.need.begin(), alt.need.end() );
                        AssertionSet haveAssertions;
                        OpenVarSet openVars{ alt.openVars };

                        alt.env.extractOpenVars( openVars );

                        // It's possible that a cast can throw away some values in a multiply-valued expression.  (An example is a
                        // cast-to-void, which casts from one value to zero.)  Figure out the prefix of the subexpression results
                        // that are cast directly.  The candidate is invalid if it has fewer results than there are types to cast
                        // to.
                        int discardedValues = alt.expr->result->size() - castExpr->result->size();
                        if ( discardedValues < 0 ) continue;
                        // xxx - may need to go into tuple types and extract relevant types and use unifyList. Note that currently, this does not
                        // allow casting a tuple to an atomic type (e.g. (int)([1, 2, 3]))
                        // unification run for side-effects
                        unify( castExpr->result, alt.expr->result, alt.env, needAssertions,
                                haveAssertions, openVars, indexer );
                        Cost thisCost = castCost( alt.expr->result, castExpr->result, indexer,
                                alt.env );
                        PRINT(
                                std::cerr << "working on cast with result: " << castExpr->result << std::endl;
                                std::cerr << "and expr type: " << alt.expr->result << std::endl;
                                std::cerr << "env: " << alt.env << std::endl;
                        )
                        if ( thisCost != Cost::infinity ) {
                                PRINT(
                                        std::cerr << "has finite cost." << std::endl;
                                )
                                // count one safe conversion for each value that is thrown away
                                thisCost.incSafe( discardedValues );
                                Alternative newAlt{ 
                                        restructureCast( alt.expr->clone(), toType, castExpr->isGenerated ), 
                                        alt.env, openVars, needAssertions, alt.cost, thisCost };
                                inferParameters( needAssertions, haveAssertions, newAlt, openVars,
                                        back_inserter( candidates ) );
                        } // if
                } // for

                // findMinCost selects the alternatives with the lowest "cost" members, but has the side effect of copying the
                // cvtCost member to the cost member (since the old cost is now irrelevant).  Thus, calling findMinCost twice
                // selects first based on argument cost, then on conversion cost.
                AltList minArgCost;
                findMinCost( candidates.begin(), candidates.end(), std::back_inserter( minArgCost ) );
                findMinCost( minArgCost.begin(), minArgCost.end(), std::back_inserter( alternatives ) );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( VirtualCastExpr * castExpr ) {
                assertf( castExpr->get_result(), "Implicit virtual cast targets not yet supported." );
                AlternativeFinder finder( indexer, env );
                // don't prune here, since it's guaranteed all alternatives will have the same type
                finder.findWithoutPrune( castExpr->get_arg() );
                for ( Alternative & alt : finder.alternatives ) {
                        alternatives.push_back( Alternative{
                                alt, new VirtualCastExpr{ alt.expr->clone(), castExpr->get_result()->clone() },
                                alt.cost } );
                }
        }

        namespace {
                /// Gets name from untyped member expression (member must be NameExpr)
                const std::string& get_member_name( UntypedMemberExpr *memberExpr ) {
                        NameExpr * nameExpr = dynamic_cast< NameExpr * >( memberExpr->get_member() );
                        assert( nameExpr );
                        return nameExpr->get_name();
                }
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( UntypedMemberExpr *memberExpr ) {
                AlternativeFinder funcFinder( indexer, env );
                funcFinder.findWithAdjustment( memberExpr->get_aggregate() );
                for ( AltList::const_iterator agg = funcFinder.alternatives.begin(); agg != funcFinder.alternatives.end(); ++agg ) {
                        // it's okay for the aggregate expression to have reference type -- cast it to the base type to treat the aggregate as the referenced value
                        Cost cost = agg->cost;
                        Expression * aggrExpr = agg->expr->clone();
                        referenceToRvalueConversion( aggrExpr, cost );
                        std::unique_ptr<Expression> guard( aggrExpr );

                        // find member of the given type
                        if ( StructInstType *structInst = dynamic_cast< StructInstType* >( aggrExpr->get_result() ) ) {
                                addAggMembers( structInst, aggrExpr, *agg, cost, get_member_name(memberExpr) );
                        } else if ( UnionInstType *unionInst = dynamic_cast< UnionInstType* >( aggrExpr->get_result() ) ) {
                                addAggMembers( unionInst, aggrExpr, *agg, cost, get_member_name(memberExpr) );
                        } else if ( TupleType * tupleType = dynamic_cast< TupleType * >( aggrExpr->get_result() ) ) {
                                addTupleMembers( tupleType, aggrExpr, *agg, cost, memberExpr->get_member() );
                        } // if
                } // for
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( MemberExpr *memberExpr ) {
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ memberExpr->clone(), env } );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( NameExpr *nameExpr ) {
                std::list< SymTab::Indexer::IdData > declList;
                indexer.lookupId( nameExpr->name, declList );
                PRINT( std::cerr << "nameExpr is " << nameExpr->name << std::endl; )
                for ( auto & data : declList ) {
                        Cost cost = Cost::zero;
                        Expression * newExpr = data.combine( cost );

                        // addAnonAlternatives uses vector::push_back, which invalidates references to existing elements, so
                        // can't construct in place and use vector::back
                        Alternative newAlt{ newExpr, env, OpenVarSet{}, AssertionList{}, Cost::zero, cost };
                        PRINT(
                                std::cerr << "decl is ";
                                data.id->print( std::cerr );
                                std::cerr << std::endl;
                                std::cerr << "newExpr is ";
                                newExpr->print( std::cerr );
                                std::cerr << std::endl;
                        )
                        renameTypes( newAlt.expr );
                        addAnonConversions( newAlt ); // add anonymous member interpretations whenever an aggregate value type is seen as a name expression.
                        alternatives.push_back( std::move(newAlt) );
                } // for
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( VariableExpr *variableExpr ) {
                // not sufficient to clone here, because variable's type may have changed
                // since the VariableExpr was originally created.
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ new VariableExpr{ variableExpr->var }, env } );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( ConstantExpr *constantExpr ) {
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ constantExpr->clone(), env } );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( SizeofExpr *sizeofExpr ) {
                if ( sizeofExpr->get_isType() ) {
                        Type * newType = sizeofExpr->get_type()->clone();
                        alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                new SizeofExpr{ resolveTypeof( newType, indexer ) }, env } );
                } else {
                        // find all alternatives for the argument to sizeof
                        AlternativeFinder finder( indexer, env );
                        finder.find( sizeofExpr->get_expr() );
                        // find the lowest cost alternative among the alternatives, otherwise ambiguous
                        AltList winners;
                        findMinCost( finder.alternatives.begin(), finder.alternatives.end(), back_inserter( winners ) );
                        if ( winners.size() != 1 ) {
                                SemanticError( sizeofExpr->get_expr(), "Ambiguous expression in sizeof operand: " );
                        } // if
                        // return the lowest cost alternative for the argument
                        Alternative &choice = winners.front();
                        referenceToRvalueConversion( choice.expr, choice.cost );
                        alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                choice, new SizeofExpr( choice.expr->clone() ), Cost::zero } );
                } // if
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( AlignofExpr *alignofExpr ) {
                if ( alignofExpr->get_isType() ) {
                        Type * newType = alignofExpr->get_type()->clone();
                        alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                new AlignofExpr{ resolveTypeof( newType, indexer ) }, env } );
                } else {
                        // find all alternatives for the argument to sizeof
                        AlternativeFinder finder( indexer, env );
                        finder.find( alignofExpr->get_expr() );
                        // find the lowest cost alternative among the alternatives, otherwise ambiguous
                        AltList winners;
                        findMinCost( finder.alternatives.begin(), finder.alternatives.end(), back_inserter( winners ) );
                        if ( winners.size() != 1 ) {
                                SemanticError( alignofExpr->get_expr(), "Ambiguous expression in alignof operand: " );
                        } // if
                        // return the lowest cost alternative for the argument
                        Alternative &choice = winners.front();
                        referenceToRvalueConversion( choice.expr, choice.cost );
                        alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                choice, new AlignofExpr{ choice.expr->clone() }, Cost::zero } );
                } // if
        }

        template< typename StructOrUnionType >
        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::addOffsetof( StructOrUnionType *aggInst, const std::string &name ) {
                std::list< Declaration* > members;
                aggInst->lookup( name, members );
                for ( std::list< Declaration* >::const_iterator i = members.begin(); i != members.end(); ++i ) {
                        if ( DeclarationWithType *dwt = dynamic_cast< DeclarationWithType* >( *i ) ) {
                                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                        new OffsetofExpr{ aggInst->clone(), dwt }, env } );
                                renameTypes( alternatives.back().expr );
                        } else {
                                assert( false );
                        }
                }
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( UntypedOffsetofExpr *offsetofExpr ) {
                AlternativeFinder funcFinder( indexer, env );
                // xxx - resolveTypeof?
                if ( StructInstType *structInst = dynamic_cast< StructInstType* >( offsetofExpr->get_type() ) ) {
                        addOffsetof( structInst, offsetofExpr->member );
                } else if ( UnionInstType *unionInst = dynamic_cast< UnionInstType* >( offsetofExpr->get_type() ) ) {
                        addOffsetof( unionInst, offsetofExpr->member );
                }
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( OffsetofExpr *offsetofExpr ) {
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ offsetofExpr->clone(), env } );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( OffsetPackExpr *offsetPackExpr ) {
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ offsetPackExpr->clone(), env } );
        }

        namespace {
                void resolveAttr( SymTab::Indexer::IdData data, FunctionType *function, Type *argType, const TypeEnvironment &env, AlternativeFinder & finder ) {
                        // assume no polymorphism
                        // assume no implicit conversions
                        assert( function->get_parameters().size() == 1 );
                        PRINT(
                                std::cerr << "resolvAttr: funcDecl is ";
                                data.id->print( std::cerr );
                                std::cerr << " argType is ";
                                argType->print( std::cerr );
                                std::cerr << std::endl;
                        )
                        const SymTab::Indexer & indexer = finder.get_indexer();
                        AltList & alternatives = finder.get_alternatives();
                        if ( typesCompatibleIgnoreQualifiers( argType, function->get_parameters().front()->get_type(), indexer, env ) ) {
                                Cost cost = Cost::zero;
                                Expression * newExpr = data.combine( cost );
                                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                        new AttrExpr{ newExpr, argType->clone() }, env, OpenVarSet{}, 
                                        AssertionList{}, Cost::zero, cost } );
                                for ( DeclarationWithType * retVal : function->returnVals ) {
                                        alternatives.back().expr->result = retVal->get_type()->clone();
                                } // for
                        } // if
                }
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( AttrExpr *attrExpr ) {
                // assume no 'pointer-to-attribute'
                NameExpr *nameExpr = dynamic_cast< NameExpr* >( attrExpr->get_attr() );
                assert( nameExpr );
                std::list< SymTab::Indexer::IdData > attrList;
                indexer.lookupId( nameExpr->get_name(), attrList );
                if ( attrExpr->get_isType() || attrExpr->get_expr() ) {
                        for ( auto & data : attrList ) {
                                DeclarationWithType * id = data.id;
                                // check if the type is function
                                if ( FunctionType *function = dynamic_cast< FunctionType* >( id->get_type() ) ) {
                                        // assume exactly one parameter
                                        if ( function->get_parameters().size() == 1 ) {
                                                if ( attrExpr->get_isType() ) {
                                                        resolveAttr( data, function, attrExpr->get_type(), env, altFinder);
                                                } else {
                                                        AlternativeFinder finder( indexer, env );
                                                        finder.find( attrExpr->get_expr() );
                                                        for ( AltList::iterator choice = finder.alternatives.begin(); choice != finder.alternatives.end(); ++choice ) {
                                                                if ( choice->expr->get_result()->size() == 1 ) {
                                                                        resolveAttr(data, function, choice->expr->get_result(), choice->env, altFinder );
                                                                } // fi
                                                        } // for
                                                } // if
                                        } // if
                                } // if
                        } // for
                } else {
                        for ( auto & data : attrList ) {
                                Cost cost = Cost::zero;
                                Expression * newExpr = data.combine( cost );
                                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                        newExpr, env, OpenVarSet{}, AssertionList{}, Cost::zero, cost } );
                                renameTypes( alternatives.back().expr );
                        } // for
                } // if
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( LogicalExpr *logicalExpr ) {
                AlternativeFinder firstFinder( indexer, env );
                firstFinder.findWithAdjustment( logicalExpr->get_arg1() );
                if ( firstFinder.alternatives.empty() ) return;
                AlternativeFinder secondFinder( indexer, env );
                secondFinder.findWithAdjustment( logicalExpr->get_arg2() );
                if ( secondFinder.alternatives.empty() ) return;
                for ( const Alternative & first : firstFinder.alternatives ) {
                        for ( const Alternative & second : secondFinder.alternatives ) {
                                TypeEnvironment compositeEnv{ first.env };
                                compositeEnv.simpleCombine( second.env );
                                OpenVarSet openVars{ first.openVars };
                                mergeOpenVars( openVars, second.openVars );
                                AssertionSet need;
                                cloneAll( first.need, need );
                                cloneAll( second.need, need );

                                LogicalExpr *newExpr = new LogicalExpr{ 
                                        first.expr->clone(), second.expr->clone(), logicalExpr->get_isAnd() };
                                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                        newExpr, std::move(compositeEnv), std::move(openVars), 
                                        AssertionList( need.begin(), need.end() ), first.cost + second.cost } );
                        }
                }
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( ConditionalExpr *conditionalExpr ) {
                // find alternatives for condition
                AlternativeFinder firstFinder( indexer, env );
                firstFinder.findWithAdjustment( conditionalExpr->arg1 );
                if ( firstFinder.alternatives.empty() ) return;
                // find alternatives for true expression
                AlternativeFinder secondFinder( indexer, env );
                secondFinder.findWithAdjustment( conditionalExpr->arg2 );
                if ( secondFinder.alternatives.empty() ) return;
                // find alterantives for false expression
                AlternativeFinder thirdFinder( indexer, env );
                thirdFinder.findWithAdjustment( conditionalExpr->arg3 );
                if ( thirdFinder.alternatives.empty() ) return;
                for ( const Alternative & first : firstFinder.alternatives ) {
                        for ( const Alternative & second : secondFinder.alternatives ) {
                                for ( const Alternative & third : thirdFinder.alternatives ) {
                                        TypeEnvironment compositeEnv{ first.env };
                                        compositeEnv.simpleCombine( second.env );
                                        compositeEnv.simpleCombine( third.env );
                                        OpenVarSet openVars{ first.openVars };
                                        mergeOpenVars( openVars, second.openVars );
                                        mergeOpenVars( openVars, third.openVars );
                                        AssertionSet need;
                                        cloneAll( first.need, need );
                                        cloneAll( second.need, need );
                                        cloneAll( third.need, need );
                                        AssertionSet have;
                                        
                                        // unify true and false types, then infer parameters to produce new alternatives
                                        Type* commonType = nullptr;
                                        if ( unify( second.expr->result, third.expr->result, compositeEnv, 
                                                        need, have, openVars, indexer, commonType ) ) {
                                                ConditionalExpr *newExpr = new ConditionalExpr{ 
                                                        first.expr->clone(), second.expr->clone(), third.expr->clone() };
                                                newExpr->result = commonType ? commonType : second.expr->result->clone();
                                                // convert both options to the conditional result type
                                                Cost cost = first.cost + second.cost + third.cost;
                                                cost += computeExpressionConversionCost( 
                                                        newExpr->arg2, newExpr->result, indexer, compositeEnv );
                                                cost += computeExpressionConversionCost( 
                                                        newExpr->arg3, newExpr->result, indexer, compositeEnv );
                                                // output alternative
                                                Alternative newAlt{ 
                                                        newExpr, std::move(compositeEnv), std::move(openVars), 
                                                        AssertionList( need.begin(), need.end() ), cost };
                                                inferParameters( need, have, newAlt, openVars, back_inserter( alternatives ) );
                                        } // if
                                } // for
                        } // for
                } // for
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( CommaExpr *commaExpr ) {
                TypeEnvironment newEnv( env );
                Expression *newFirstArg = resolveInVoidContext( commaExpr->get_arg1(), indexer, newEnv );
                AlternativeFinder secondFinder( indexer, newEnv );
                secondFinder.findWithAdjustment( commaExpr->get_arg2() );
                for ( const Alternative & alt : secondFinder.alternatives ) {
                        alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                alt, new CommaExpr{ newFirstArg->clone(), alt.expr->clone() }, alt.cost } );
                } // for
                delete newFirstArg;
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( RangeExpr * rangeExpr ) {
                // resolve low and high, accept alternatives whose low and high types unify
                AlternativeFinder firstFinder( indexer, env );
                firstFinder.findWithAdjustment( rangeExpr->low );
                if ( firstFinder.alternatives.empty() ) return;
                AlternativeFinder secondFinder( indexer, env );
                secondFinder.findWithAdjustment( rangeExpr->high );
                if ( secondFinder.alternatives.empty() ) return;
                for ( const Alternative & first : firstFinder.alternatives ) {
                        for ( const Alternative & second : secondFinder.alternatives ) {
                                TypeEnvironment compositeEnv{ first.env };
                                compositeEnv.simpleCombine( second.env );
                                OpenVarSet openVars{ first.openVars };
                                mergeOpenVars( openVars, second.openVars );
                                AssertionSet need;
                                cloneAll( first.need, need );
                                cloneAll( second.need, need );
                                AssertionSet have;

                                Type* commonType = nullptr;
                                if ( unify( first.expr->result, second.expr->result, compositeEnv, need, have, 
                                                openVars, indexer, commonType ) ) {
                                        RangeExpr * newExpr = 
                                                new RangeExpr{ first.expr->clone(), second.expr->clone() };
                                        newExpr->result = commonType ? commonType : first.expr->result->clone();
                                        Alternative newAlt{ 
                                                newExpr, std::move(compositeEnv), std::move(openVars), 
                                                AssertionList( need.begin(), need.end() ), first.cost + second.cost };
                                        inferParameters( need, have, newAlt, openVars, back_inserter( alternatives ) );
                                } // if
                        } // for
                } // for
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( UntypedTupleExpr *tupleExpr ) {
                std::vector< AlternativeFinder > subExprAlternatives;
                altFinder.findSubExprs( tupleExpr->get_exprs().begin(), tupleExpr->get_exprs().end(),
                        back_inserter( subExprAlternatives ) );
                std::vector< AltList > possibilities;
                combos( subExprAlternatives.begin(), subExprAlternatives.end(),
                        back_inserter( possibilities ) );
                for ( const AltList& alts : possibilities ) {
                        std::list< Expression * > exprs;
                        makeExprList( alts, exprs );

                        TypeEnvironment compositeEnv;
                        OpenVarSet openVars;
                        AssertionSet need;
                        for ( const Alternative& alt : alts ) {
                                compositeEnv.simpleCombine( alt.env );
                                mergeOpenVars( openVars, alt.openVars );
                                cloneAll( alt.need, need );
                        }
                        
                        alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                new TupleExpr{ exprs }, std::move(compositeEnv), std::move(openVars), 
                                AssertionList( need.begin(), need.end() ), sumCost( alts ) } );
                } // for
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( TupleExpr *tupleExpr ) {
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ tupleExpr->clone(), env } );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( ImplicitCopyCtorExpr * impCpCtorExpr ) {
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ impCpCtorExpr->clone(), env } );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( ConstructorExpr * ctorExpr ) {
                AlternativeFinder finder( indexer, env );
                // don't prune here, since it's guaranteed all alternatives will have the same type
                // (giving the alternatives different types is half of the point of ConstructorExpr nodes)
                finder.findWithoutPrune( ctorExpr->get_callExpr() );
                for ( Alternative & alt : finder.alternatives ) {
                        alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ 
                                alt, new ConstructorExpr( alt.expr->clone() ), alt.cost } );
                }
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( TupleIndexExpr *tupleExpr ) {
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ tupleExpr->clone(), env } );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( TupleAssignExpr *tupleAssignExpr ) {
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ tupleAssignExpr->clone(), env } );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( UniqueExpr *unqExpr ) {
                AlternativeFinder finder( indexer, env );
                finder.findWithAdjustment( unqExpr->get_expr() );
                for ( Alternative & alt : finder.alternatives ) {
                        // ensure that the id is passed on to the UniqueExpr alternative so that the expressions are "linked"
                        UniqueExpr * newUnqExpr = new UniqueExpr( alt.expr->clone(), unqExpr->get_id() );
                        alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ alt, newUnqExpr, alt.cost } );
                }
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( StmtExpr *stmtExpr ) {
                StmtExpr * newStmtExpr = stmtExpr->clone();
                ResolvExpr::resolveStmtExpr( newStmtExpr, indexer );
                // xxx - this env is almost certainly wrong, and needs to somehow contain the combined environments from all of the statements in the stmtExpr...
                alternatives.push_back( Alternative{ newStmtExpr, env } );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( UntypedInitExpr *initExpr ) {
                // handle each option like a cast
                AltList candidates;
                PRINT(
                        std::cerr << "untyped init expr: " << initExpr << std::endl;
                )
                // O(N^2) checks of d-types with e-types
                for ( InitAlternative & initAlt : initExpr->get_initAlts() ) {
                        Type * toType = resolveTypeof( initAlt.type->clone(), indexer );
                        SymTab::validateType( toType, &indexer );
                        adjustExprType( toType, env, indexer );
                        // Ideally the call to findWithAdjustment could be moved out of the loop, but unfortunately it currently has to occur inside or else
                        // polymorphic return types are not properly bound to the initialization type, since return type variables are only open for the duration of resolving
                        // the UntypedExpr. This is only actually an issue in initialization contexts that allow more than one possible initialization type, but it is still suboptimal.
                        AlternativeFinder finder( indexer, env );
                        finder.targetType = toType;
                        finder.findWithAdjustment( initExpr->expr );
                        for ( Alternative & alt : finder.get_alternatives() ) {
                                TypeEnvironment newEnv( alt.env );
                                AssertionSet need;
                                cloneAll( alt.need, need );
                                AssertionSet have;
                                OpenVarSet openVars( alt.openVars );  
                                // xxx - find things in env that don't have a "representative type" and claim 
                                // those are open vars?
                                PRINT(
                                        std::cerr << "  @ " << toType << " " << initAlt.designation << std::endl;
                                )
                                // It's possible that a cast can throw away some values in a multiply-valued 
                                // expression. (An example is a cast-to-void, which casts from one value to 
                                // zero.)  Figure out the prefix of the subexpression results that are cast 
                                // directly.  The candidate is invalid if it has fewer results than there are 
                                // types to cast to.
                                int discardedValues = alt.expr->result->size() - toType->size();
                                if ( discardedValues < 0 ) continue;
                                // xxx - may need to go into tuple types and extract relevant types and use 
                                // unifyList. Note that currently, this does not allow casting a tuple to an 
                                // atomic type (e.g. (int)([1, 2, 3]))
                                
                                // unification run for side-effects
                                unify( toType, alt.expr->result, newEnv, need, have, openVars, indexer );
                                // xxx - do some inspecting on this line... why isn't result bound to initAlt.type?

                                Cost thisCost = castCost( alt.expr->result, toType, indexer, newEnv );
                                if ( thisCost != Cost::infinity ) {
                                        // count one safe conversion for each value that is thrown away
                                        thisCost.incSafe( discardedValues );
                                        Alternative newAlt{ 
                                                new InitExpr{ 
                                                        restructureCast( alt.expr->clone(), toType, true ), initAlt.designation->clone() }, 
                                                std::move(newEnv), std::move(openVars), 
                                                AssertionList( need.begin(), need.end() ), alt.cost, thisCost };
                                        inferParameters( need, have, newAlt, openVars, back_inserter( candidates ) );
                                }
                        }
                }

                // findMinCost selects the alternatives with the lowest "cost" members, but has the side effect of copying the
                // cvtCost member to the cost member (since the old cost is now irrelevant).  Thus, calling findMinCost twice
                // selects first based on argument cost, then on conversion cost.
                AltList minArgCost;
                findMinCost( candidates.begin(), candidates.end(), std::back_inserter( minArgCost ) );
                findMinCost( minArgCost.begin(), minArgCost.end(), std::back_inserter( alternatives ) );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( InitExpr * ) {
                assertf( false, "AlternativeFinder should never see a resolved InitExpr." );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( DeletedExpr * ) {
                assertf( false, "AlternativeFinder should never see a DeletedExpr." );
        }

        void AlternativeFinder::Finder::postvisit( GenericExpr * ) {
                assertf( false, "_Generic is not yet supported." );
        }
} // namespace ResolvExpr

// Local Variables: //
// tab-width: 4 //
// mode: c++ //
// compile-command: "make install" //
// End: //