[f60d997] | 1 | \documentclass[openright,twoside]{report} |
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| 2 | \usepackage{fullpage,times} |
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| 3 | \usepackage{xspace} |
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| 4 | \usepackage{varioref} |
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| 5 | \usepackage{listings} |
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| 6 | \usepackage{latexsym} % \Box |
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| 7 | \usepackage{mathptmx} % better math font with "times" |
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| 8 | \usepackage[pagewise]{lineno} |
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| 9 | \renewcommand{\linenumberfont}{\scriptsize\sffamily} |
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| 10 | \usepackage[dvips,plainpages=false,pdfpagelabels,pdfpagemode=UseNone,colorlinks=true,pagebackref=true,linkcolor=blue,citecolor=blue,urlcolor=blue,pagebackref=true,breaklinks=true]{hyperref} |
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| 11 | \usepackage{breakurl} |
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| 12 | \urlstyle{sf} |
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| 13 | |
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| 14 | %\input code.sty |
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| 15 | \input xref.tex |
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| 16 | |
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| 17 | \newcommand{\define}[1]{\emph{#1\/}\index{#1}} |
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| 18 | \newenvironment{rationale}{% |
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| 19 | \begin{quotation}\noindent$\Box$\enspace |
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| 20 | }{% |
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| 21 | \hfill\enspace$\Box$\end{quotation} |
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| 22 | }% |
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| 23 | \newcommand{\rewrite}{\(\Rightarrow\)} |
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| 24 | \newcommand{\rewriterules}{\paragraph{Rewrite Rules}\hskip1em\par\noindent} |
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| 25 | \newcommand{\examples}{\paragraph{Examples}\hskip1em\par\noindent} |
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| 26 | \newcommand{\semantics}{\paragraph{Semantics}\hskip1em\par\noindent} |
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| 27 | \newcommand{\constraints}{\paragraph{Constraints}\hskip1em\par\noindent} |
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| 28 | \newenvironment{predefined}{% |
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| 29 | \paragraph{Predefined Identifiers}% |
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| 30 | % \begin{code}% |
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| 31 | }{% |
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| 32 | % \end{code} |
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| 33 | }% |
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| 34 | |
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| 35 | \def\syntax{\paragraph{Syntax}\trivlist\parindent=.5in\item[\hskip.5in]} |
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| 36 | \let\endsyntax=\endtrivlist |
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| 37 | \newcommand{\lhs}[1]{\par{\it #1:}\index{#1@{\it #1}|italic}} |
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| 38 | \newcommand{\rhs}{\hfil\break\hbox{\hskip1in}} |
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| 39 | \newcommand{\oldlhs}[1]{{\it #1: \ldots}\index{#1@{\it #1}|italic}} |
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| 40 | \newcommand{\nonterm}[1]{{\it #1\/}\index{#1@{\it #1}|italic}} |
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| 41 | \newcommand{\opt}{$_{opt}$\ } |
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| 42 | |
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| 43 | \renewcommand{\reftextfaceafter}{\unskip} |
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| 44 | \renewcommand{\reftextfacebefore}{\unskip} |
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| 45 | \renewcommand{\reftextafter}{\unskip} |
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| 46 | \renewcommand{\reftextbefore}{\unskip} |
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| 47 | \renewcommand{\reftextfaraway}[1]{\unskip, p.~\pageref{#1}} |
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| 48 | \renewcommand{\reftextpagerange}[2]{\unskip, pp.~\pageref{#1}--\pageref{#2}} |
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| 49 | \newcommand{\VRef}[2][Section]{\ifx#1\@empty\else{#1}\nobreakspace\fi\vref{#2}} |
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| 50 | \newcommand{\VPageref}[2][page]{\ifx#1\@empty\else{#1}\nobreakspace\fi\pageref{#2}} |
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| 51 | |
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| 52 | \newcommand{\CFA}{Cforall\xspace} |
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| 53 | \newcommand{\CFAA}{C$\forall$\xspace} |
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| 54 | \newcommand{\CC}{C\kern-.1em\hbox{+\kern-.25em+}\xspace} |
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| 55 | \def\c11{ISO/IEC C}% cannot have numbers in latex command name |
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| 56 | |
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| 57 | \lstdefinelanguage{CFA}[ANSI]{C}% |
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| 58 | {morekeywords={asm,_Atomic,catch,choose,_Complex,context,dtype,fallthru,forall,ftype,_Imaginary,lvalue,restrict,throw,try,type,}, |
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| 59 | } |
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| 60 | |
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| 61 | \lstset{ |
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| 62 | language=CFA, |
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| 63 | columns=fullflexible, |
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| 64 | basicstyle=\sf\small, |
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| 65 | tabsize=4, |
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| 66 | xleftmargin=\parindent, |
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| 67 | escapechar=@, |
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| 68 | %showtabs=true, |
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| 69 | %tab=\rightarrowfill, |
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| 70 | } |
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| 71 | |
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| 72 | \setcounter{secnumdepth}{3} % number subsubsections |
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| 73 | \makeindex |
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| 74 | |
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| 75 | \begin{document} |
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| 76 | \pagestyle{headings} |
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| 77 | \linenumbers % comment out to turn off line numbering |
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| 78 | |
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| 79 | \title{\CFA (\CFAA) Reference Manual and Rationale} |
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| 80 | \author{Glen Ditchfield} |
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| 81 | \date{DRAFT\\\today} |
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| 82 | |
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| 83 | \pagenumbering{roman} |
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| 84 | \pagestyle{plain} |
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| 85 | |
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| 86 | \maketitle |
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| 87 | |
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| 88 | \vspace*{\fill} |
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| 89 | \thispagestyle{empty} |
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| 90 | \noindent |
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| 91 | \copyright\,2015 Glen Ditchfield \\ \\ |
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| 92 | \noindent |
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| 93 | This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a |
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| 94 | copy of this license, visit {\small\url{http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0}}. |
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| 95 | \vspace*{1in} |
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| 96 | |
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| 97 | \clearpage |
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| 98 | \pdfbookmark[1]{Contents}{section} |
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| 99 | \tableofcontents |
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| 100 | |
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| 101 | \clearpage |
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| 102 | \pagenumbering{arabic} |
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| 103 | |
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| 104 | |
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| 105 | \chapter*{Introduction}\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Introduction} |
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| 106 | |
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| 107 | This document is a reference manual and rationale for \CFA, a polymorphic extension of the C |
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| 108 | programming language. It makes frequent reference to the {\c11} standard \cite{ANS:C11}, and |
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| 109 | occasionally compares \CFA to {\CC} \cite{c++}. |
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| 110 | |
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| 111 | The manual deliberately imitates the ordering of the {\c11} standard (although the section numbering |
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| 112 | differs). Unfortunately, this means that the manual contains more ``forward references'' than |
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| 113 | usual, and that it will be hard to follow if the reader does not have a copy of the {\c11} standard |
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| 114 | near-by. For a gentle introduction to \CFA, see the companion document ``An Overview of |
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| 115 | \CFA'' \cite{Ditchfield96:Overview}. |
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| 116 | |
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| 117 | \begin{rationale} |
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| 118 | Commentary (like this) is quoted with quads. Commentary usually deals with subtle points, the |
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| 119 | rationale behind a rule, and design decisions. |
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| 120 | \end{rationale} |
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| 121 | |
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| 122 | % No ``Scope'' or ``Normative references'' chapters yet. |
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| 123 | \setcounter{chapter}{2} |
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| 124 | \chapter{Terms, definitions, and symbols} |
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| 125 | Terms from the {\c11} standard used in this document have the same meaning as in the {\c11} |
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| 126 | standard. |
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| 127 | |
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| 128 | % No ``Conformance'' or ``Environment'' chapters yet. |
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| 129 | \setcounter{chapter}{5} |
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| 130 | \chapter{Language} |
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| 131 | \section{Notation} |
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| 132 | The syntax notation used in this document is the same as is used in the {\c11} standard, with one |
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| 133 | exception: ellipsis in the definition of a nonterminal, as in ``\emph{declaration:} \ldots'', |
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| 134 | indicates that these rules extend a previous definition, which occurs in this document or in the |
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| 135 | {\c11} standard. |
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| 136 | |
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| 137 | |
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| 138 | \section{Concepts} |
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| 139 | |
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| 140 | |
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| 141 | \subsection{Scopes of identifiers}\index{scopes} |
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| 142 | |
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| 143 | \CFA's scope rules differ from C's in one major respect: a declaration of an identifier may |
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| 144 | overload\index{overloading} outer declarations of lexically identical identifiers in the same name |
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| 145 | space\index{name spaces}, instead of hiding them. The outer declaration is hidden if the two |
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| 146 | declarations have compatible type\index{compatible type}, or if one declares an array type and the |
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| 147 | other declares a pointer type and the element type and pointed-at type are compatible, or if one has |
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| 148 | function type and the other is a pointer to a compatible function type, or if one declaration is a |
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| 149 | \lstinline$type$\use{type} or \lstinline$typedef$\use{typedef} declaration and the other is not. |
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| 150 | The outer declaration becomes visible\index{visible} when the scope of the inner declaration |
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| 151 | terminates. |
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| 152 | \begin{rationale} |
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| 153 | Hence, a \CFA program can declare an \lstinline$int v$ and a \lstinline$float v$ in the same |
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| 154 | scope; a {\CC} program can not. |
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| 155 | \end{rationale} |
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| 156 | |
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| 157 | |
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| 158 | \subsection{Linkage of identifiers}\index{linkage} |
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| 159 | |
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| 160 | \CFA's linkage rules differ from C's in only one respect: instances of a particular identifier |
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| 161 | with external or internal linkage do not necessarily denote the same object or function. Instead, |
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| 162 | in the set of translation units and libraries that constitutes an entire program, any two instances |
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| 163 | of a particular identifier with external linkage\index{external linkage} denote the same object or |
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| 164 | function if they have compatible types\index{compatible type}, or if one declares an array type and |
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| 165 | the other declares a pointer type and the element type and pointed-at type are compatible, or if one |
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| 166 | has function type and the other is a pointer to a compatible function type. Within one translation |
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| 167 | unit, each instance of an identifier with internal linkage\index{internal linkage} denotes the same |
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| 168 | object or function in the same circumstances. Identifiers with no linkage\index{no linkage} always |
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| 169 | denote unique entities. |
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| 170 | \begin{rationale} |
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| 171 | A \CFA program can declare an \lstinline$extern int v$ and an \lstinline$extern float v$; a C |
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| 172 | program cannot. |
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| 173 | \end{rationale} |
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| 174 | |
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| 175 | \section{Conversions} |
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| 176 | \CFA defines situations where values of one type are automatically converted to another type. |
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| 177 | These conversions are called \define{implicit conversions}. The programmer can request |
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| 178 | \define{explicit conversions} using cast expressions. |
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| 179 | |
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| 180 | |
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| 181 | \subsection{Arithmetic operands} |
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| 182 | \setcounter{subsubsection}{7} |
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| 183 | |
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| 184 | |
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| 185 | \subsubsection{Safe arithmetic conversions} |
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| 186 | In C, a pattern of conversions known as the \define{usual arithmetic conversions} is used with most |
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| 187 | binary arithmetic operators to convert the operands to a common type and determine the type of the |
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| 188 | operator's result. In \CFA, these conversions play a role in overload resolution, and |
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| 189 | collectively are called the \define{safe arithmetic conversions}. |
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| 190 | |
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| 191 | Let \(int_r\) and \(unsigned_r\) be the signed and unsigned integer types with integer conversion |
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| 192 | rank\index{integer conversion rank} \index{rank|see{integer conversion rank}} $r$. Let |
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| 193 | \(unsigned_{mr}\) be the unsigned integer type with maximal rank. |
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| 194 | |
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| 195 | The following conversions are \emph{direct} safe arithmetic conversions. |
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| 196 | \begin{itemize} |
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| 197 | \item |
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| 198 | The integer promotions\index{integer promotions}. |
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| 199 | |
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| 200 | \item |
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| 201 | For every rank $r$ greater than or equal to the rank of \lstinline$int$, conversion from \(int_r\) |
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| 202 | to \(unsigned_r\). |
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| 203 | |
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| 204 | \item |
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| 205 | For every rank $r$ greater than or equal to the rank of \lstinline$int$, where \(int_{r+1}\) exists |
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| 206 | and can represent all values of \(unsigned_r\), conversion from \(unsigned_r\) to \(int_{r+1}\). |
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| 207 | |
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| 208 | \item |
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| 209 | Conversion from \(unsigned_{mr}\) to \lstinline$float$. |
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| 210 | |
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| 211 | \item |
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| 212 | Conversion from an enumerated type to its compatible integer type. |
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| 213 | |
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| 214 | \item |
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| 215 | Conversion from \lstinline$float$ to \lstinline$double$, and from \lstinline$double$ to |
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| 216 | \lstinline$long double$. |
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| 217 | |
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| 218 | \item |
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| 219 | Conversion from \lstinline$float _Complex$ to \lstinline$double _Complex$, |
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| 220 | and from \lstinline$double _Complex$ to \lstinline$long double _Complex$. |
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| 221 | |
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| 222 | \begin{sloppypar} |
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| 223 | \item |
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| 224 | Conversion from \lstinline$float _Imaginary$ to \lstinline$double _Imaginary$, and from |
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| 225 | \lstinline$double _Imaginary$ to \lstinline$long double$ \lstinline$_Imaginary$, if the |
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| 226 | implementation supports imaginary types. |
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| 227 | \end{sloppypar} |
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| 228 | \end{itemize} |
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| 229 | |
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| 230 | If type \lstinline$T$ can be converted to type \lstinline$U$ by a safe direct arithmetic conversion |
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| 231 | and type \lstinline$U$ can be converted to type \lstinline$V$ by a safe arithmetic conversion, then |
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| 232 | the conversion from \lstinline$T$ to type \lstinline$V$ is an \emph{indirect} safe arithmetic |
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| 233 | conversion. |
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| 234 | |
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| 235 | \begin{rationale} |
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| 236 | Note that {\c11} does not include conversion from real types\index{real type} to complex |
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| 237 | types\index{complex type} in the usual arithmetic conversions, and \CFA does not include them as |
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| 238 | safe conversions. |
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| 239 | \end{rationale} |
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| 240 | |
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| 241 | |
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| 242 | \subsection{Other operands} |
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| 243 | \setcounter{subsubsection}{3} |
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| 244 | |
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| 245 | |
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| 246 | \subsubsection{Anonymous structures and unions} |
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| 247 | \label{anon-conv} |
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| 248 | |
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| 249 | If an expression's type is a pointer to a structure or union type that has a member that is an |
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| 250 | anonymous structure\index{anonymous structure} or an anonymous union\index{anonymous union}, it can |
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| 251 | be implicitly converted\index{implicit conversions} to a pointer to the anonymous structure's or |
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| 252 | anonymous union's type. The result of the conversion is a pointer to the member. |
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| 253 | |
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| 254 | \examples |
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| 255 | \begin{lstlisting} |
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| 256 | struct point { |
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| 257 | int x, y; |
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| 258 | }; |
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| 259 | void move_by(struct point * p1, struct point * p2) {@\impl{move_by}@ |
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| 260 | p1->x += p2.x; |
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| 261 | p1->y += p2.y; |
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| 262 | } |
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| 263 | |
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| 264 | struct color_point { |
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| 265 | enum { RED, BLUE, GREEN } color; |
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| 266 | struct point; |
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| 267 | } cp1, cp2; |
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| 268 | move_to(&cp1, &cp2); |
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| 269 | \end{lstlisting} |
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| 270 | Thanks to implicit conversion, the two arguments that \lstinline$move_by()$ receives are pointers to |
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| 271 | \lstinline$cp1$'s second member and \lstinline$cp2$'s second member. |
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| 272 | |
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| 273 | |
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| 274 | \subsubsection{Specialization} |
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| 275 | A function or value whose type is polymorphic may be implicitly converted to one whose type is less |
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| 276 | polymorphic\index{less polymorphic} by binding values to one or more of its inferred |
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| 277 | parameters\index{inferred parameter}. Any value that is legal for the inferred parameter may be |
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| 278 | used, including other inferred parameters. |
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| 279 | |
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| 280 | If, after the inferred parameter binding, an assertion parameter\index{assertion parameters} has no |
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| 281 | inferred parameters in its type, then an object or function must be visible at the point of the |
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| 282 | specialization that has the same identifier as the assertion parameter and has a type that is |
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| 283 | compatible\index{compatible type} with or can be specialized to the type of the assertion parameter. |
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| 284 | The assertion parameter is bound to that object or function. |
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| 285 | |
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| 286 | The type of the specialization is the type of the original with the bound inferred parameters and |
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| 287 | the bound assertion parameters replaced by their bound values. |
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| 288 | |
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| 289 | \examples |
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| 290 | The type |
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| 291 | \begin{lstlisting} |
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| 292 | forall( type T, type U ) void (*)( T, U ); |
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| 293 | \end{lstlisting} |
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| 294 | can be specialized to (among other things) |
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| 295 | \begin{lstlisting} |
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| 296 | forall( type T ) void (*)( T, T ); // U bound to T |
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| 297 | forall( type T ) void (*)( T, real ); // U bound to real |
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| 298 | forall( type U ) void (*)( real, U ); // T bound to real |
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| 299 | void f( real, real ); // both bound to real |
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| 300 | \end{lstlisting} |
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| 301 | |
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| 302 | The type |
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| 303 | \begin{lstlisting} |
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| 304 | forall( type T | T ?+?( T, T )) T (*)( T ); |
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| 305 | \end{lstlisting} |
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| 306 | can be specialized to (among other things) |
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| 307 | \begin{lstlisting} |
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| 308 | int (*)( int ); // T bound to int, and T ?+?(T, T ) bound to int ?+?( int, int ) |
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| 309 | \end{lstlisting} |
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| 310 | |
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| 311 | |
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| 312 | \subsubsection{Safe conversions} |
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| 313 | |
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| 314 | A \define{direct safe conversion} is one of the following conversions: |
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| 315 | \begin{itemize} |
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| 316 | \item |
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| 317 | a direct safe arithmetic conversion; |
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| 318 | \item |
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| 319 | from any object type or incomplete type to \lstinline$void$; |
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| 320 | \item |
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| 321 | from a pointer to any non-\lstinline$void$ type to a pointer to \lstinline$void$; |
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| 322 | \item |
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| 323 | from a pointer to any type to a pointer to a more qualified version of the type\index{qualified |
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| 324 | type}; |
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| 325 | \item |
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| 326 | from a pointer to a structure or union type to a pointer to the type of a member of the structure or |
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| 327 | union that is an anonymous structure\index{anonymous structure} or an anonymous |
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| 328 | union\index{anonymous union}; |
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| 329 | \item |
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| 330 | within the scope of an initialized type declaration\index{type declaration}, conversions between a |
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| 331 | type and its implementation or between a pointer to a type and a pointer to its implementation. |
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| 332 | \end{itemize} |
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| 333 | |
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| 334 | Conversions that are not safe conversions are \define{unsafe conversions}. |
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| 335 | \begin{rationale} |
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| 336 | As in C, there is an implicit conversion from \lstinline$void *$ to any pointer type. This is |
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| 337 | clearly dangerous, and {\CC} does not have this implicit conversion. |
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| 338 | \CFA\index{deficiencies!void * conversion} keeps it, in the interest of remaining as pure a |
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| 339 | superset of C as possible, but discourages it by making it unsafe. |
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| 340 | \end{rationale} |
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| 341 | |
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| 342 | |
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| 343 | \subsection{Conversion cost} |
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| 344 | |
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| 345 | The \define{conversion cost} of a safe\index{safe conversions} |
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| 346 | conversion\footnote{Unsafe\index{unsafe conversions} conversions do not have defined conversion |
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| 347 | costs.} is a measure of how desirable or undesirable it is. It is defined as follows. |
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| 348 | \begin{itemize} |
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| 349 | \item |
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| 350 | The cost of a conversion from any type to itself is 0. |
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| 351 | |
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| 352 | \item |
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| 353 | The cost of a direct safe conversion is 1. |
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| 354 | |
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| 355 | \item |
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| 356 | The cost of an indirect safe arithmetic conversion is the smallest number of direct conversions |
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| 357 | needed to make up the conversion. |
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| 358 | \end{itemize} |
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| 359 | |
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| 360 | \examples |
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| 361 | In the following, assume an implementation that does not provide any extended integer types. |
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| 362 | |
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| 363 | \begin{itemize} |
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| 364 | \item |
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| 365 | The cost of an implicit conversion from \lstinline$int$ to \lstinline$long$ is 1. The cost of an |
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| 366 | implicit conversion from \lstinline$long$ to \lstinline$double$ is 3, because it is defined in terms |
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| 367 | of conversions from \lstinline$long$ to \lstinline$unsigned long$, then to \lstinline$float$, and |
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| 368 | then to \lstinline$double$. |
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| 369 | |
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| 370 | \item |
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| 371 | If \lstinline$int$ can represent all the values of \lstinline$unsigned short$, then the cost of an |
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| 372 | implicit conversion from \lstinline$unsigned short$ to \lstinline$unsigned$ is 2: |
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| 373 | \lstinline$unsigned short$ to \lstinline$int$ to \lstinline$unsigned$. Otherwise, |
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| 374 | \lstinline$unsigned short$ is converted directly to \lstinline$unsigned$, and the cost is 1. |
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| 375 | |
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| 376 | \item |
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| 377 | If \lstinline$long$ can represent all the values of \lstinline$unsigned$, then the conversion cost |
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| 378 | of \lstinline$unsigned$ to \lstinline$long$ is 1. Otherwise, the conversion is an unsafe |
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| 379 | conversion, and its conversion cost is undefined. |
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| 380 | \end{itemize} |
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| 381 | |
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| 382 | \section{Lexical elements} |
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| 383 | \subsection{Keywords} |
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| 384 | \begin{syntax} |
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| 385 | \oldlhs{keyword} |
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| 386 | \rhs \lstinline$forall$ |
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| 387 | \rhs \lstinline$lvalue$ |
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| 388 | \rhs \lstinline$context$ |
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| 389 | \rhs \lstinline$dtype$ |
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| 390 | \rhs \lstinline$ftype$ |
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| 391 | \rhs \lstinline$type$ |
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| 392 | \end{syntax} |
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| 393 | |
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| 394 | |
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| 395 | \subsection{Identifiers} |
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| 396 | |
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| 397 | \CFA allows operator overloading\index{overloading} by associating operators with special |
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| 398 | function identifiers. Furthermore, the constants ``\lstinline$0$'' and ``\lstinline$1$'' have |
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| 399 | special status for many of C's data types (and for many programmer-defined data types as well), so |
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| 400 | \CFA treats them as overloadable identifiers. Programmers can use these identifiers to declare |
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| 401 | functions and objects that implement operators and constants for their own types. |
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| 402 | |
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| 403 | |
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| 404 | \setcounter{subsubsection}{2} |
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| 405 | \subsubsection{Constant identifiers} |
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| 406 | |
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| 407 | \begin{syntax} |
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| 408 | \oldlhs{identifier} |
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| 409 | \rhs \lstinline$0$ |
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| 410 | \rhs \lstinline$1$ |
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| 411 | \end{syntax} |
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| 412 | |
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| 413 | \index{constant identifiers}\index{identifiers!for constants} The tokens ``\lstinline$0$''\impl{0} |
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| 414 | and ``\lstinline$1$''\impl{1} are identifiers. No other tokens defined by the rules for integer |
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| 415 | constants are considered to be identifiers. |
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| 416 | \begin{rationale} |
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| 417 | Why ``\lstinline$0$'' and ``\lstinline$1$''? Those integers have special status in C. All scalar |
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| 418 | types can be incremented and decremented, which is defined in terms of adding or subtracting 1. The |
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| 419 | operations ``\lstinline$&&$'', ``\lstinline$||$'', and ``\lstinline$!$'' can be applied to any |
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| 420 | scalar arguments, and are defined in terms of comparison against 0. A \nonterm{constant-expression} |
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| 421 | that evaluates to 0 is effectively compatible with every pointer type. |
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| 422 | |
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| 423 | In C, the integer constants 0 and 1 suffice because the integer promotion rules can convert them to |
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| 424 | any arithmetic type, and the rules for pointer expressions treat constant expressions evaluating to |
---|
| 425 | 0 as a special case. However, user-defined arithmetic types often need the equivalent of a 1 or 0 |
---|
| 426 | for their functions or operators, polymorphic functions often need 0 and 1 constants of a type |
---|
| 427 | matching their polymorphic parameters, and user-defined pointer-like types may need a null value. |
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| 428 | Defining special constants for a user-defined type is more efficient than defining a conversion to |
---|
| 429 | the type from \lstinline$_Bool$. |
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| 430 | |
---|
| 431 | Why \emph{just} ``\lstinline$0$'' and ``\lstinline$1$''? Why not other integers? No other integers |
---|
| 432 | have special status in C. A facility that let programmers declare specific |
---|
| 433 | constants---``\lstinline$const Rational 12$'', for instance---would not be much of an improvement. |
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| 434 | Some facility for defining the creation of values of programmer-defined types from arbitrary integer |
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| 435 | tokens would be needed. The complexity of such a feature doesn't seem worth the gain. |
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| 436 | \end{rationale} |
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| 437 | |
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| 438 | |
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| 439 | \subsubsection{Operator identifiers} |
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| 440 | |
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| 441 | \index{operator identifiers}\index{identifiers!for operators} Table \ref{opids} lists the |
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| 442 | programmer-definable operator identifiers and the operations they are associated with. Functions |
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| 443 | that are declared with (or pointed at by function pointers that are declared with) these identifiers |
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| 444 | can be called by expressions that use the operator tokens and syntax, or the operator identifiers |
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| 445 | and ``function call'' syntax. The relationships between operators and function calls are discussed |
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| 446 | in descriptions of the operators. |
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| 447 | |
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| 448 | \begin{table}[hbt] |
---|
| 449 | \hfil |
---|
| 450 | \begin{tabular}[t]{ll} |
---|
| 451 | %identifier & operation \\ \hline |
---|
| 452 | \lstinline$?[?]$ & subscripting \impl{?[?]}\\ |
---|
| 453 | \lstinline$?()$ & function call \impl{?()}\\ |
---|
| 454 | \lstinline$?++$ & postfix increment \impl{?++}\\ |
---|
| 455 | \lstinline$?--$ & postfix decrement \impl{?--}\\ |
---|
| 456 | \lstinline$++?$ & prefix increment \impl{++?}\\ |
---|
| 457 | \lstinline$--?$ & prefix decrement \impl{--?}\\ |
---|
| 458 | \lstinline$*?$ & dereference \impl{*?}\\ |
---|
| 459 | \lstinline$+?$ & unary plus \impl{+?}\\ |
---|
| 460 | \lstinline$-?$ & arithmetic negation \impl{-?}\\ |
---|
| 461 | \lstinline$~?$ & bitwise negation \impl{~?}\\ |
---|
| 462 | \lstinline$!?$ & logical complement \impl{"!?}\\ |
---|
| 463 | \lstinline$?*?$ & multiplication \impl{?*?}\\ |
---|
| 464 | \lstinline$?/?$ & division \impl{?/?}\\ |
---|
| 465 | \end{tabular}\hfil |
---|
| 466 | \begin{tabular}[t]{ll} |
---|
| 467 | %identifier & operation \\ \hline |
---|
| 468 | \lstinline$?%?$ & remainder \impl{?%?}\\ |
---|
| 469 | \lstinline$?+?$ & addition \impl{?+?}\\ |
---|
| 470 | \lstinline$?-?$ & subtraction \impl{?-?}\\ |
---|
| 471 | \lstinline$?<<?$ & left shift \impl{?<<?}\\ |
---|
| 472 | \lstinline$?>>?$ & right shift \impl{?>>?}\\ |
---|
| 473 | \lstinline$?<?$ & less than \impl{?<?}\\ |
---|
| 474 | \lstinline$?<=?$ & less than or equal \impl{?<=?}\\ |
---|
| 475 | \lstinline$?>=?$ & greater than or equal \impl{?>=?}\\ |
---|
| 476 | \lstinline$?>?$ & greater than \impl{?>?}\\ |
---|
| 477 | \lstinline$?==?$ & equality \impl{?==?}\\ |
---|
| 478 | \lstinline$?!=?$ & inequality \impl{?"!=?}\\ |
---|
| 479 | \lstinline$?&?$ & bitwise AND \impl{?&?}\\ |
---|
| 480 | \end{tabular}\hfil |
---|
| 481 | \begin{tabular}[t]{ll} |
---|
| 482 | %identifier & operation \\ \hline |
---|
| 483 | \lstinline$?^?$ & exclusive OR \impl{?^?}\\ |
---|
| 484 | \lstinline$?|?$ & inclusive OR \impl{?"|?}\\ |
---|
| 485 | \lstinline$?=?$ & simple assignment \impl{?=?}\\ |
---|
| 486 | \lstinline$?*=?$ & multiplication assignment \impl{?*=?}\\ |
---|
| 487 | \lstinline$?/=?$ & division assignment \impl{?/=?}\\ |
---|
| 488 | \lstinline$?%=?$ & remainder assignment \impl{?%=?}\\ |
---|
| 489 | \lstinline$?+=?$ & addition assignment \impl{?+=?}\\ |
---|
| 490 | \lstinline$?-=?$ & subtraction assignment \impl{?-=?}\\ |
---|
| 491 | \lstinline$?<<=?$ & left-shift assignment \impl{?<<=?}\\ |
---|
| 492 | \lstinline$?>>=?$ & right-shift assignment \impl{?>>=?}\\ |
---|
| 493 | \lstinline$?&=?$ & bitwise AND assignment \impl{?&=?}\\ |
---|
| 494 | \lstinline$?^=?$ & exclusive OR assignment \impl{?^=?}\\ |
---|
| 495 | \lstinline$?|=?$ & inclusive OR assignment \impl{?"|=?}\\ |
---|
| 496 | \end{tabular} |
---|
| 497 | \hfil |
---|
| 498 | \caption{Operator Identifiers} |
---|
| 499 | \label{opids} |
---|
| 500 | \end{table} |
---|
| 501 | |
---|
| 502 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 503 | Operator identifiers are made up of the characters of the operator token, with question marks added |
---|
| 504 | to mark the positions of the arguments of operators. The question marks serve as mnemonic devices; |
---|
| 505 | programmers can not create new operators by arbitrarily mixing question marks and other |
---|
| 506 | non-alphabetic characters. Note that prefix and postfix versions of the increment and decrement |
---|
| 507 | operators are distinguished by the position of the question mark. |
---|
| 508 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 509 | |
---|
| 510 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 511 | The use of ``\lstinline$?$'' in identifiers means that some C programs are not \CFA programs. |
---|
| 512 | For instance, the sequence of characters ``\lstinline$(i < 0)?--i:i$'' is legal in a C program, but |
---|
| 513 | a \CFA compiler will detect a syntax error because it will treat ``\lstinline$?--$'' as an |
---|
| 514 | identifier, not as the two tokens ``\lstinline$?$'' and ``\lstinline$--$''. |
---|
| 515 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 516 | |
---|
| 517 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 518 | Certain operators \emph{cannot} be defined by the programmer: |
---|
| 519 | \begin{itemize} |
---|
| 520 | \item |
---|
| 521 | The logical operators ``\lstinline$&&$'' and ``\lstinline$||$'', and the conditional operator |
---|
| 522 | ``\lstinline$?:$''. These operators do not always evaluate their operands, and hence can not be |
---|
| 523 | properly defined by functions unless some mechanism like call-by-name is added to the language. |
---|
| 524 | Note that the definitions of ``\lstinline$&&$'' and ``\lstinline$||$'' say that they work by |
---|
| 525 | checking that their arguments are unequal to 0, so defining ``\lstinline$!=$'' and ``\lstinline$0$'' |
---|
| 526 | for user-defined types is enough to allow them to be used in logical expressions. |
---|
| 527 | |
---|
| 528 | \item |
---|
| 529 | The comma operator\index{comma expression}. It is a control-flow operator like those above. |
---|
| 530 | Changing its meaning seems pointless and confusing. |
---|
| 531 | |
---|
| 532 | \item |
---|
| 533 | The ``address of'' operator. It would seem useful to define a unary ``\lstinline$&$'' operator that |
---|
| 534 | returns values of some programmer-defined pointer-like type. The problem lies with the type of the |
---|
| 535 | operator. Consider the expression ``\lstinline$p = &x$'', where \lstinline$x$ is of type |
---|
| 536 | \lstinline$T$ and \lstinline$p$ has the programmer-defined type \lstinline$T_ptr$. The expression |
---|
| 537 | might be treated as a call to the unary function ``\lstinline$&?$''. Now what is the type of the |
---|
| 538 | function's parameter? It can not be \lstinline$T$, because then \lstinline$x$ would be passed by |
---|
| 539 | value, and there is no way to create a useful pointer-like result from a value. Hence the parameter |
---|
| 540 | must have type \lstinline$T *$. But then the expression must be rewritten as ``\lstinline$p = &?( &x )$'' |
---|
| 541 | ---which doesn't seem like progress! |
---|
| 542 | |
---|
| 543 | The rule for address-of expressions would have to be something like ``keep applying address-of |
---|
| 544 | functions until you get one that takes a pointer argument, then use the built-in operator and |
---|
| 545 | stop''. It seems simpler to define a conversion function from \lstinline$T *$ to \lstinline$T_ptr$. |
---|
| 546 | |
---|
| 547 | \item |
---|
| 548 | The \lstinline$sizeof$ operator. It is already defined for every object type, and intimately tied |
---|
| 549 | into the language's storage allocation model. Redefining it seems pointless. |
---|
| 550 | |
---|
| 551 | \item |
---|
| 552 | The ``member of'' operators ``\lstinline$.$'' and ``\lstinline$->$''. These are not really infix |
---|
| 553 | operators, since their right ``operand'' is not a value or object. |
---|
| 554 | |
---|
| 555 | \item |
---|
| 556 | Cast operators\index{cast expression}. Anything that can be done with an explicit cast can be done |
---|
| 557 | with a function call. The difference in syntax is small. |
---|
| 558 | \end{itemize} |
---|
| 559 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 560 | |
---|
| 561 | |
---|
| 562 | \section{Expressions} |
---|
| 563 | \CFA allows operators and identifiers to be overloaded. Hence, each expression can have a number |
---|
| 564 | of \define{interpretations}, each of which has a different type. The interpretations that are |
---|
| 565 | potentially executable are called \define{valid interpretations}. The set of interpretations |
---|
| 566 | depends on the kind of expression and on the interpretations of the subexpressions that it contains. |
---|
| 567 | The rules for determining the valid interpretations of an expression are discussed below for each |
---|
| 568 | kind of expression. Eventually the context of the outermost expression chooses one interpretation |
---|
| 569 | of that expression. |
---|
| 570 | |
---|
| 571 | An \define{ambiguous interpretation} is an interpretation which does not specify the exact object or |
---|
| 572 | function denoted by every identifier in the expression. An expression can have some interpretations |
---|
| 573 | that are ambiguous and others that are unambiguous. An expression that is chosen to be executed |
---|
| 574 | shall not be ambiguous. |
---|
| 575 | |
---|
| 576 | The \define{best valid interpretations} are the valid interpretations that use the fewest |
---|
| 577 | unsafe\index{unsafe conversions} conversions. Of these, the best are those where the functions and |
---|
| 578 | objects involved are the least polymorphic\index{less polymorphic}. Of these, the best have the |
---|
| 579 | lowest total conversion cost\index{conversion cost}, including all implicit conversions in the |
---|
| 580 | argument expressions. Of these, the best have the highest total conversion cost for the implicit |
---|
| 581 | conversions (if any) applied to the argument expressions. If there is no single best valid |
---|
| 582 | interpretation, or if the best valid interpretation is ambiguous, then the resulting interpretation |
---|
| 583 | is ambiguous\index{ambiguous interpretation}. |
---|
| 584 | |
---|
| 585 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 586 | \CFA's rules for selecting the best interpretation are designed to allow overload resolution to |
---|
| 587 | mimic C's operator semantics. In C, the ``usual arithmetic conversions'' are applied to the |
---|
| 588 | operands of binary operators if necessary to convert the operands to types with a common real type. |
---|
| 589 | In \CFA, those conversions are ``safe''. The ``fewest unsafe conversions'' rule ensures that the |
---|
| 590 | usual conversions are done, if possible. The ``lowest total expression cost'' rule chooses the |
---|
| 591 | proper common type. The odd-looking ``highest argument conversion cost'' rule ensures that, when |
---|
| 592 | unary expressions must be converted, conversions of function results are preferred to conversion of |
---|
| 593 | function arguments: \lstinline$(double)-i$ will be preferred to \lstinline$-(double)i$. |
---|
| 594 | |
---|
| 595 | The ``least polymorphic'' rule reduces the number of polymorphic function calls, since such |
---|
| 596 | functions are presumably more expensive than monomorphic functions and since the more specific |
---|
| 597 | function is presumably more appropriate. It also gives preference to monomorphic values (such as |
---|
| 598 | the \lstinline$int$ \lstinline$0$) over polymorphic values (such as the null pointer |
---|
| 599 | \lstinline$0$)\use{0}\index{null pointer}. However, interpretations that call polymorphic functions |
---|
| 600 | are preferred to interpretations that perform unsafe conversions, because those conversions |
---|
| 601 | potentially lose accuracy or violate strong typing. |
---|
| 602 | |
---|
| 603 | There are two notable differences between \CFA's overload resolution rules and the rules for |
---|
| 604 | {\CC} defined in \cite{c++}. First, the result type of a function plays a role. In {\CC}, a |
---|
| 605 | function call must be completely resolved based on the arguments to the call in most circumstances. |
---|
| 606 | In \CFA, a function call may have several interpretations, each with a different result type, and |
---|
| 607 | the interpretations of the containing context choose among them. Second, safe conversions are used |
---|
| 608 | to choose among interpretations of all sorts of functions; in {\CC}, the ``usual arithmetic |
---|
| 609 | conversions'' are a separate set of rules that apply only to the built-in operators. |
---|
| 610 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 611 | |
---|
| 612 | Expressions involving certain operators\index{operator identifiers} are considered to be equivalent |
---|
| 613 | to function calls. A transformation from ``operator'' syntax to ``function call'' syntax is defined |
---|
| 614 | by \define{rewrite rules}. Each operator has a set of predefined functions that overload its |
---|
| 615 | identifier. Overload resolution determines which member of the set is executed in a given |
---|
| 616 | expression. The functions have internal linkage\index{internal linkage} and are implicitly declared |
---|
| 617 | with file scope\index{file scope}. The predefined functions and rewrite rules are discussed below |
---|
| 618 | for each of these operators. |
---|
| 619 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 620 | Predefined functions and constants have internal linkage because that simplifies optimization in |
---|
| 621 | traditional compile-and-link environments. For instance, ``\lstinline$an_int + an_int$'' is |
---|
| 622 | equivalent to ``\lstinline$?+?(an_int, an_int)$''. If integer addition has not been redefined in |
---|
| 623 | the current scope, a compiler can generate code to perform the addition directly. If predefined |
---|
| 624 | functions had external linkage, this optimization would be difficult. |
---|
| 625 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 626 | |
---|
| 627 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 628 | Since each subsection describes the interpretations of an expression in terms of the interpretations |
---|
| 629 | of its subexpressions, this chapter can be taken as describing an overload resolution algorithm that |
---|
| 630 | uses one bottom-up pass over an expression tree. Such an algorithm was first described (for Ada) by |
---|
| 631 | Baker \cite{Bak:overload}. It is extended here to handle polymorphic functions and arithmetic |
---|
| 632 | conversions. The overload resolution rules and the predefined functions have been chosen so that, |
---|
| 633 | in programs that do not introduce overloaded declarations, expressions will have the same meaning in |
---|
| 634 | C and in \CFA. |
---|
| 635 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 636 | |
---|
| 637 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 638 | Expression syntax is quoted from the {\c11} standard. The syntax itself defines the precedence and |
---|
| 639 | associativity of operators. The sections are arranged in decreasing order of precedence, with all |
---|
| 640 | operators in a section having the same precedence. |
---|
| 641 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 642 | |
---|
| 643 | \subsection{Primary expressions} |
---|
| 644 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 645 | \lhs{primary-expression} |
---|
| 646 | \rhs \nonterm{identifier} |
---|
| 647 | \rhs \nonterm{constant} |
---|
| 648 | \rhs \nonterm{string-literal} |
---|
| 649 | \rhs \lstinline$($ \nonterm{expression} \lstinline$)$ |
---|
| 650 | \rhs \nonterm{generic-selection} |
---|
| 651 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 652 | |
---|
| 653 | \paragraph{Predefined Identifiers}% |
---|
| 654 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 655 | const int 1;@\use{1}@ |
---|
| 656 | const int 0;@\use{0}@ |
---|
| 657 | forall( dtype DT ) DT *const 0; |
---|
| 658 | forall( ftype FT ) FT *const 0; |
---|
| 659 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 660 | |
---|
| 661 | \semantics |
---|
| 662 | The valid interpretations\index{valid interpretations} of an \nonterm{identifier} are given by the |
---|
| 663 | visible\index{visible} declarations of the identifier. |
---|
| 664 | |
---|
| 665 | A \nonterm{constant} or \nonterm{string-literal} has one valid interpretation, which has the type |
---|
| 666 | and value defined by {\c11}. The predefined integer identifiers ``\lstinline$1$'' and |
---|
| 667 | ``\lstinline$0$'' have the integer values 1 and 0, respectively. The other two predefined |
---|
| 668 | ``\lstinline$0$'' identifiers are bound to polymorphic pointer values that, when |
---|
| 669 | specialized\index{specialization} with a data type or function type respectively, produce a null |
---|
| 670 | pointer of that type. |
---|
| 671 | |
---|
| 672 | A parenthesised expression has the same interpretations as the contained \nonterm{expression}. |
---|
| 673 | |
---|
| 674 | \examples |
---|
| 675 | The expression \lstinline$(void *)0}$\use{0} specializes the (polymorphic) null pointer to a null |
---|
| 676 | pointer to \lstinline$void$. \lstinline$(const void *)0$ does the same, and also uses a safe |
---|
| 677 | conversion from \lstinline$void *$ to \lstinline$const void *$. In each case, the null pointer |
---|
| 678 | conversion is better\index{best valid interpretations} than the unsafe conversion of the integer |
---|
| 679 | \lstinline$0$ to a pointer. |
---|
| 680 | |
---|
| 681 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 682 | Note that the predefined identifiers have addresses. |
---|
| 683 | |
---|
| 684 | \CFA does not have C's concept of ``null pointer constants'', which are not typed values but |
---|
| 685 | special strings of tokens. The C token ``\lstinline$0$'' is an expression of type \lstinline$int$ |
---|
| 686 | with the value ``zero'', and it \emph{also} is a null pointer constant. Similarly, |
---|
| 687 | ``\lstinline$(void *)0$ is an expression of type \lstinline$(void *)$ whose value is a null pointer, |
---|
| 688 | and it also is a null pointer constant. However, in C, ``\lstinline$(void *)(void *)0$'' is |
---|
| 689 | \emph{not} a null pointer constant, even though it is null-valued, a pointer, and constant! The |
---|
| 690 | semantics of C expressions contain many special cases to deal with subexpressions that are null |
---|
| 691 | pointer constants. |
---|
| 692 | |
---|
| 693 | \CFA handles these cases through overload resolution. The declaration |
---|
| 694 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 695 | forall( dtype DT ) DT *const 0; |
---|
| 696 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 697 | means that \lstinline$0$ is a polymorphic object, and contains a value that can have \emph{any} |
---|
| 698 | pointer-to-object type or pointer-to-incomplete type. The only such value is the null pointer. |
---|
| 699 | Therefore the type \emph{alone} is enough to identify a null pointer. Where C defines an operator |
---|
| 700 | with a special case for the null pointer constant, \CFA defines predefined functions with a |
---|
| 701 | polymorphic object parameter. |
---|
| 702 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 703 | |
---|
| 704 | \subsubsection{Generic selection} |
---|
| 705 | \constraints The best interpretation of the controlling expression shall be |
---|
| 706 | unambiguous\index{ambiguous interpretation}, and shall have type compatible with at most one of the |
---|
| 707 | types named in its generic association list. If a generic selection has no \lstinline$default$ |
---|
| 708 | generic association, the best interpretation of its controlling expression shall have type |
---|
| 709 | compatible with exactly one of the types named in its generic association list. |
---|
| 710 | |
---|
| 711 | \semantics |
---|
| 712 | A generic selection has the same interpretations as its result expression. |
---|
| 713 | |
---|
| 714 | |
---|
| 715 | \subsection{Postfix operators} |
---|
| 716 | |
---|
| 717 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 718 | \lhs{postfix-expression} |
---|
| 719 | \rhs \nonterm{primary-expression} |
---|
| 720 | \rhs \nonterm{postfix-expression} \lstinline$[$ \nonterm{expression} \lstinline$]$ |
---|
| 721 | \rhs \nonterm{postfix-expression} \lstinline$($ |
---|
| 722 | \nonterm{argument-expression-list}\opt \lstinline$)$ |
---|
| 723 | \rhs \nonterm{postfix-expression} \lstinline$.$ \nonterm{identifier} |
---|
| 724 | \rhs \nonterm{postfix-expression} \lstinline$->$ \nonterm{identifier} |
---|
| 725 | \rhs \nonterm{postfix-expression} \lstinline$++$ |
---|
| 726 | \rhs \nonterm{postfix-expression} \lstinline$--$ |
---|
| 727 | \rhs \lstinline$($ \nonterm{type-name} \lstinline$)$ \lstinline${$ \nonterm{initializer-list} \lstinline$}$ |
---|
| 728 | \rhs \lstinline$($ \nonterm{type-name} \lstinline$)$ \lstinline${$ \nonterm{initializer-list} \lstinline$,$ \lstinline$}$ |
---|
| 729 | \lhs{argument-expression-list} |
---|
| 730 | \rhs \nonterm{assignment-expression} |
---|
| 731 | \rhs \nonterm{argument-expression-list} \lstinline$,$ |
---|
| 732 | \nonterm{assignment-expression} |
---|
| 733 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 734 | |
---|
| 735 | \rewriterules |
---|
| 736 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 737 | a[b] @\rewrite@ ?[?]( b, a ) // if a has integer type */@\use{?[?]}@ |
---|
| 738 | a[b] @\rewrite@ ?[?]( a, b ) // otherwise |
---|
| 739 | a( ${\em arguments }$ ) @\rewrite@ ?()( a, ${\em arguments} )$@\use{?()}@ |
---|
| 740 | a++ @\rewrite@ ?++(&( a ))@\use{?++}@ |
---|
| 741 | a-- @\rewrite@ ?--(&( a ))@\use{?--}@ |
---|
| 742 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 743 | |
---|
| 744 | \subsubsection{Array subscripting} |
---|
| 745 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 746 | forall( type T ) lvalue T ?[?]( T *, ptrdiff_t );@\use{ptrdiff_t}@ |
---|
| 747 | forall( type T ) lvalue _Atomic T ?[?]( _Atomic T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 748 | forall( type T ) lvalue const T ?[?]( const T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 749 | forall( type T ) lvalue restrict T ?[?]( restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 750 | forall( type T ) lvalue volatile T ?[?]( volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 751 | forall( type T ) lvalue _Atomic const T ?[?]( _Atomic const T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 752 | forall( type T ) lvalue _Atomic restrict T ?[?]( _Atomic restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 753 | forall( type T ) lvalue _Atomic volatile T ?[?]( _Atomic volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 754 | forall( type T ) lvalue const restrict T ?[?]( const restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 755 | forall( type T ) lvalue const volatile T ?[?]( const volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 756 | forall( type T ) lvalue restrict volatile T ?[?]( restrict volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 757 | forall( type T ) lvalue _Atomic const restrict T ?[?]( _Atomic const restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 758 | forall( type T ) lvalue _Atomic const volatile T ?[?]( _Atomic const volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 759 | forall( type T ) lvalue _Atomic restrict volatile T ?[?]( _Atomic restrict volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 760 | forall( type T ) lvalue const restrict volatile T ?[?]( const restrict volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 761 | forall( type T ) lvalue _Atomic const restrict volatile T ?[?]( _Atomic const restrict volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 762 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 763 | \semantics |
---|
| 764 | The interpretations of subscript expressions are the interpretations of the corresponding function |
---|
| 765 | call expressions. |
---|
| 766 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 767 | C defines subscripting as pointer arithmetic in a way that makes \lstinline$a[i]$ and |
---|
| 768 | \lstinline$i[a]$ equivalent. \CFA provides the equivalence through a rewrite rule to reduce the |
---|
| 769 | number of overloadings of \lstinline$?[?]$. |
---|
| 770 | |
---|
| 771 | Subscript expressions are rewritten as function calls that pass the first parameter by value. This |
---|
| 772 | is somewhat unfortunate, since array-like types tend to be large. The alternative is to use the |
---|
| 773 | rewrite rule ``\lstinline$a[b]$ \rewrite \lstinline$?[?](&(a), b)$''. However, C semantics forbid |
---|
| 774 | this approach: the \lstinline$a$ in ``\lstinline$a[b]$'' can be an arbitrary pointer value, which |
---|
| 775 | does not have an address. |
---|
| 776 | |
---|
| 777 | The repetitive form of the predefined identifiers shows up a deficiency\index{deficiencies!pointers |
---|
| 778 | to qualified types} of \CFA's type system. Type qualifiers are not included in type values, so |
---|
| 779 | polymorphic functions that take pointers to arbitrary types often come in one flavor for each |
---|
| 780 | possible qualification of the pointed-at type. |
---|
| 781 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 782 | |
---|
| 783 | |
---|
| 784 | \subsubsection{Function calls} |
---|
| 785 | |
---|
| 786 | \semantics |
---|
| 787 | A \define{function designator} is an interpretation of an expression that has function type. The |
---|
| 788 | \nonterm{postfix-expression} in a function call may have some interpretations that are function |
---|
| 789 | designators and some that are not. |
---|
| 790 | |
---|
| 791 | For those interpretations of the \nonterm{postfix-expression} that are not function designators, the |
---|
| 792 | expression is rewritten and becomes a call of a function named ``\lstinline$?()$''. The valid |
---|
| 793 | interpretations of the rewritten expression are determined in the manner described below. |
---|
| 794 | |
---|
| 795 | Each combination of function designators and argument interpretations is considered. For those |
---|
| 796 | interpretations of the \nonterm{postfix-expression} that are monomorphic\index{monomorphic function} |
---|
| 797 | function designators, the combination has a valid interpretation\index{valid interpretations} if the |
---|
| 798 | function designator accepts the number of arguments given, and each argument interpretation matches |
---|
| 799 | the corresponding explicit parameter: |
---|
| 800 | \begin{itemize} |
---|
| 801 | \item |
---|
| 802 | if the argument corresponds to a parameter in the function designator's prototype, the argument |
---|
| 803 | interpretation must have the same type as the corresponding parameter, or be implicitly convertible |
---|
| 804 | to the parameter's type |
---|
| 805 | \item |
---|
| 806 | if the function designator's type does not include a prototype or if the argument corresponds to |
---|
| 807 | ``\lstinline$...$'' in a prototype, a default argument promotion\index{default argument promotions} |
---|
| 808 | is applied to it. |
---|
| 809 | \end{itemize} |
---|
| 810 | The type of the valid interpretation is the return type of the function designator. |
---|
| 811 | |
---|
| 812 | For those combinations where the interpretation of the \nonterm{postfix-expression} is a |
---|
| 813 | polymorphic\index{polymorphic function} function designator and the function designator accepts the |
---|
| 814 | number of arguments given, there shall be at least one set of \define{implicit arguments} for the |
---|
| 815 | implicit parameters such that |
---|
| 816 | \begin{itemize} |
---|
| 817 | \item |
---|
| 818 | If the declaration of the implicit parameter uses type-class\index{type-class} |
---|
| 819 | \lstinline$type$\use{type}, the implicit argument must be an object type; if it uses |
---|
| 820 | \lstinline$dtype$, the implicit argument must be an object type or an incomplete type; and if it |
---|
| 821 | uses \lstinline$ftype$, the implicit argument must be a function type. |
---|
| 822 | |
---|
| 823 | \item |
---|
| 824 | if an explicit parameter's type uses any implicit parameters, then the corresponding explicit |
---|
| 825 | argument must have a type that is (or can be safely converted\index{safe conversions} to) the type |
---|
| 826 | produced by substituting the implicit arguments for the implicit parameters in the explicit |
---|
| 827 | parameter type. |
---|
| 828 | |
---|
| 829 | \item |
---|
| 830 | the remaining explicit arguments must match the remaining explicit parameters, as described for |
---|
| 831 | monomorphic function designators. |
---|
| 832 | |
---|
| 833 | \item |
---|
| 834 | for each assertion parameter\index{assertion parameters} in the function designator's type, there |
---|
| 835 | must be an object or function with the same identifier that is visible at the call site and whose |
---|
| 836 | type is compatible with or can be specialized to the type of the assertion declaration. |
---|
| 837 | \end{itemize} |
---|
| 838 | There is a valid interpretation for each such set of implicit parameters. The type of each valid |
---|
| 839 | interpretation is the return type of the function designator with implicit parameter values |
---|
| 840 | substituted for the implicit arguments. |
---|
| 841 | |
---|
| 842 | A valid interpretation is ambiguous\index{ambiguous interpretation} if the function designator or |
---|
| 843 | any of the argument interpretations is ambiguous. |
---|
| 844 | |
---|
| 845 | Every valid interpretation whose return type is not compatible with any other valid interpretation's |
---|
| 846 | return type is an interpretation of the function call expression. |
---|
| 847 | |
---|
| 848 | Every set of valid interpretations that have mutually compatible\index{compatible type} result types |
---|
| 849 | also produces an interpretation of the function call expression. The type of the interpretation is |
---|
| 850 | the composite\index{composite type} type of the types of the valid interpretations, and the value of |
---|
| 851 | the interpretation is that of the best valid interpretation\index{best valid interpretations}. |
---|
| 852 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 853 | One desirable property of a polymorphic programming language is \define{generalizability}: the |
---|
| 854 | ability to replace an abstraction with a more general but equivalent abstraction without requiring |
---|
| 855 | changes in any of the uses of the original\cite{Cormack90}. For instance, it should be possible to |
---|
| 856 | replace a function ``\lstinline$int f( int );$'' with ``\lstinline$forall( type T ) T f( T );$'' |
---|
| 857 | without affecting any calls of \lstinline$f$. |
---|
| 858 | |
---|
| 859 | \CFA\index{deficiencies!generalizability} does not fully possess this property, because |
---|
| 860 | unsafe\index{unsafe conversions} conversions are not done when arguments are passed to polymorphic |
---|
| 861 | parameters. Consider |
---|
| 862 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 863 | float g( float, float ); |
---|
| 864 | int i; |
---|
| 865 | float f; |
---|
| 866 | double d; |
---|
| 867 | f = g( f, f ); // (1) |
---|
| 868 | f = g( i, f ); // (2) (safe conversion to float) |
---|
| 869 | f = g( d, f ); // (3) (unsafe conversion to float) |
---|
| 870 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 871 | If \lstinline$g$ was replaced by ``\lstinline$forall( type T ) T g( T, T );$'', the first and second |
---|
| 872 | calls would be unaffected, but the third would change: \lstinline$f$ would be converted to |
---|
| 873 | \lstinline$double$, and the result would be a \lstinline$double$. |
---|
| 874 | |
---|
| 875 | Another example is the function ``\lstinline$void h( int *);$''. This function can be passed a |
---|
| 876 | \lstinline$void *$ argument, but the generalization ``\lstinline$forall( type T ) void h( T *);$'' |
---|
| 877 | can not. In this case, \lstinline$void$ is not a valid value for \lstinline$T$ because it is not an |
---|
| 878 | object type. If unsafe conversions were allowed, \lstinline$T$ could be inferred to be \emph{any} |
---|
| 879 | object type, which is undesirable. |
---|
| 880 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 881 | |
---|
| 882 | \examples |
---|
| 883 | A function called ``\lstinline$?()$'' might be part of a numerical differentiation package. |
---|
| 884 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 885 | extern type Derivative; |
---|
| 886 | extern double ?()( Derivative, double ); |
---|
| 887 | extern Derivative derivative_of( double (*f)( double ) ); |
---|
| 888 | extern double sin( double ); |
---|
| 889 | |
---|
| 890 | Derivative sin_dx = derivative_of( sin ); |
---|
| 891 | double d; |
---|
| 892 | d = sin_dx( 12.9 ); |
---|
| 893 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 894 | Here, the only interpretation of \lstinline$sin_dx$ is as an object of type \lstinline$Derivative$. |
---|
| 895 | For that interpretation, the function call is treated as ``\lstinline$?()( sin_dx, 12.9 )$''. |
---|
| 896 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 897 | int f( long ); // (1) |
---|
| 898 | int f( int, int ); // (2) |
---|
| 899 | int f( int *); // (3) |
---|
| 900 | |
---|
| 901 | int i = f( 5 ); // calls (1) |
---|
| 902 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 903 | Function (1) provides a valid interpretation of ``\lstinline$f( 5 )$'', using an implicit |
---|
| 904 | \lstinline$int$ to \lstinline$long$ conversion. The other functions do not, since the second |
---|
| 905 | requires two arguments, and since there is no implicit conversion from \lstinline$int$ to |
---|
| 906 | \lstinline$int *$ that could be used with the third function. |
---|
| 907 | |
---|
| 908 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 909 | forall( type T ) T h( T ); |
---|
| 910 | double d = h( 1.5 ); |
---|
| 911 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 912 | ``\lstinline$1.5$'' is a \lstinline$double$ constant, so \lstinline$T$ is inferred to be |
---|
| 913 | \lstinline$double$, and the result of the function call is a \lstinline$double$. |
---|
| 914 | |
---|
| 915 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 916 | forall( type T, type U ) void g( T, U ); // (4) |
---|
| 917 | forall( type T ) void g( T, T ); // (5) |
---|
| 918 | forall( type T ) void g( T, long ); // (6) |
---|
| 919 | void g( long, long ); // (7) |
---|
| 920 | double d; |
---|
| 921 | int i; |
---|
| 922 | int *p; |
---|
| 923 | |
---|
| 924 | g( d, d ); // calls (5) |
---|
| 925 | g( d, i ); // calls (6) |
---|
| 926 | g( i, i ); // calls (7) |
---|
| 927 | g( i, p ); // calls (4) |
---|
| 928 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 929 | The first call has valid interpretations for all four versions of \lstinline$g$. (6) and (7) are |
---|
| 930 | discarded because they involve unsafe \lstinline$double$-to-\lstinline$long$ conversions. (5) is |
---|
| 931 | chosen because it is less polymorphic than (4). |
---|
| 932 | |
---|
| 933 | For the second call, (7) is again discarded. Of the remaining interpretations for (4), (5), and (6) |
---|
| 934 | (with \lstinline$i$ converted to \lstinline$long$), (6) is chosen because it is the least |
---|
| 935 | polymorphic. |
---|
| 936 | |
---|
| 937 | The third call has valid interpretations for all of the functions; (7) is chosen since it is not |
---|
| 938 | polymorphic at all. |
---|
| 939 | |
---|
| 940 | The fourth call has no interpretation for (5), because its arguments must have compatible type. (4) |
---|
| 941 | is chosen because it does not involve unsafe conversions. |
---|
| 942 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 943 | forall( type T ) T min( T, T ); |
---|
| 944 | double max( double, double ); |
---|
| 945 | context min_max( T ) {@\impl{min_max}@ |
---|
| 946 | T min( T, T ); |
---|
| 947 | T max( T, T ); |
---|
| 948 | } |
---|
| 949 | forall( type U | min_max( U ) ) void shuffle( U, U ); |
---|
| 950 | shuffle(9, 10); |
---|
| 951 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 952 | The only possibility for \lstinline$U$ is \lstinline$double$, because that is the type used in the |
---|
| 953 | only visible \lstinline$max$ function. 9 and 10 must be converted to \lstinline$double$, and |
---|
| 954 | \lstinline$min$ must be specialized with \lstinline$T$ bound to \lstinline$double$. |
---|
| 955 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 956 | extern void q( int ); // (8) |
---|
| 957 | extern void q( void * ); // (9) |
---|
| 958 | extern void r(); |
---|
| 959 | q( 0 ); |
---|
| 960 | r( 0 ); |
---|
| 961 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 962 | The \lstinline$int 0$ could be passed to (8), or the \lstinline$(void *)$ |
---|
| 963 | specialization\index{specialization} of the null pointer\index{null pointer} \lstinline$0$\use{0} |
---|
| 964 | could be passed to (9). The former is chosen because the \lstinline$int$ \lstinline$0$ is less |
---|
| 965 | polymorphic\index{less polymorphic}. For the same reason, \lstinline$int$ \lstinline$0$ is passed |
---|
| 966 | to \lstinline$r()$, even though it has \emph{no} declared parameter types. |
---|
| 967 | |
---|
| 968 | |
---|
| 969 | \subsubsection{Structure and union members} |
---|
| 970 | |
---|
| 971 | \semantics In the member selection expression ``\lstinline$s$.\lstinline$m$'', there shall be at |
---|
| 972 | least one interpretation of \lstinline$s$ whose type is a structure type or union type containing a |
---|
| 973 | member named \lstinline$m$. If two or more interpretations of \lstinline$s$ have members named |
---|
| 974 | \lstinline$m$ with mutually compatible types, then the expression has an ambiguous |
---|
| 975 | interpretation\index{ambiguous interpretation} whose type is the composite type of the types of the |
---|
| 976 | members. If an interpretation of \lstinline$s$ has a member \lstinline$m$ whose type is not |
---|
| 977 | compatible with any other \lstinline$s$'s \lstinline$m$, then the expression has an interpretation |
---|
| 978 | with the member's type. The expression has no other interpretations. |
---|
| 979 | |
---|
| 980 | The expression ``\lstinline$p->m$'' has the same interpretations as the expression |
---|
| 981 | ``\lstinline$(*p).m$''. |
---|
| 982 | |
---|
| 983 | |
---|
| 984 | \subsubsection{Postfix increment and decrement operators} |
---|
| 985 | |
---|
| 986 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 987 | _Bool ?++( volatile _Bool * ), |
---|
| 988 | ?++( _Atomic volatile _Bool * ); |
---|
| 989 | char ?++( volatile char * ), |
---|
| 990 | ?++( _Atomic volatile char * ); |
---|
| 991 | signed char ?++( volatile signed char * ), |
---|
| 992 | ?++( _Atomic volatile signed char * ); |
---|
| 993 | unsigned char ?++( volatile signed char * ), |
---|
| 994 | ?++( _Atomic volatile signed char * ); |
---|
| 995 | short int ?++( volatile short int * ), |
---|
| 996 | ?++( _Atomic volatile short int * ); |
---|
| 997 | unsigned short int ?++( volatile unsigned short int * ), |
---|
| 998 | ?++( _Atomic volatile unsigned short int * ); |
---|
| 999 | int ?++( volatile int * ), |
---|
| 1000 | ?++( _Atomic volatile int * ); |
---|
| 1001 | unsigned int ?++( volatile unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1002 | ?++( _Atomic volatile unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1003 | long int ?++( volatile long int * ), |
---|
| 1004 | ?++( _Atomic volatile long int * ); |
---|
| 1005 | long unsigned int ?++( volatile long unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1006 | ?++( _Atomic volatile long unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1007 | long long int ?++( volatile long long int * ), |
---|
| 1008 | ?++( _Atomic volatile long long int * ); |
---|
| 1009 | long long unsigned ?++( volatile long long unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1010 | ?++( _Atomic volatile long long unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1011 | float ?++( volatile float * ), |
---|
| 1012 | ?++( _Atomic volatile float * ); |
---|
| 1013 | double ?++( volatile double * ), |
---|
| 1014 | ?++( _Atomic volatile double * ); |
---|
| 1015 | long double ?++( volatile long double * ), |
---|
| 1016 | ?++( _Atomic volatile long double * ); |
---|
| 1017 | |
---|
| 1018 | forall( type T ) T * ?++( T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1019 | * ?++( T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1020 | |
---|
| 1021 | forall( type T ) _Atomic T * ?++( _Atomic T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1022 | * ?++( _Atomic T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1023 | |
---|
| 1024 | forall( type T ) const T * ?++( const T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1025 | * ?++( const T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1026 | |
---|
| 1027 | forall( type T ) volatile T * ?++( volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1028 | * ?++( volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1029 | |
---|
| 1030 | forall( type T ) restrict T * ?++( restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1031 | * ?++( restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1032 | |
---|
| 1033 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const T * ?++( _Atomic const T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1034 | * ?++( _Atomic const T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1035 | |
---|
| 1036 | forall( type T ) _Atomic restrict T * ?++( _Atomic restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1037 | * ?++( _Atomic restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1038 | |
---|
| 1039 | forall( type T ) _Atomic volatile T * ?++( _Atomic volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1040 | * ?++( _Atomic volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1041 | |
---|
| 1042 | forall( type T ) const restrict T * ?++( const restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1043 | * ?++( const restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1044 | |
---|
| 1045 | forall( type T ) const volatile T * ?++( const volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1046 | * ?++( const volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1047 | |
---|
| 1048 | forall( type T ) restrict volatile T * ?++( restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1049 | * ?++( restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1050 | |
---|
| 1051 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const restrict T * ?++( _Atomic const restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1052 | * ?++( _Atomic const restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1053 | |
---|
| 1054 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const volatile T * ?++( _Atomic const volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1055 | * ?++( _Atomic const volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1056 | |
---|
| 1057 | forall( type T ) _Atomic restrict volatile T * ?++( _Atomic restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1058 | * ?++( _Atomic restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1059 | |
---|
| 1060 | forall( type T ) const restrict volatile T * ?++( const restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1061 | * ?++( const restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1062 | |
---|
| 1063 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const restrict volatile T * ?++( _Atomic const restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1064 | * ?++( _Atomic const restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1065 | |
---|
| 1066 | _Bool ?--( volatile _Bool * ), |
---|
| 1067 | ?--( _Atomic volatile _Bool * ); |
---|
| 1068 | char ?--( volatile char * ), |
---|
| 1069 | ?--( _Atomic volatile char * ); |
---|
| 1070 | signed char ?--( volatile signed char * ), |
---|
| 1071 | ?--( _Atomic volatile signed char * ); |
---|
| 1072 | unsigned char ?--( volatile signed char * ), |
---|
| 1073 | ?--( _Atomic volatile signed char * ); |
---|
| 1074 | short int ?--( volatile short int * ), |
---|
| 1075 | ?--( _Atomic volatile short int * ); |
---|
| 1076 | unsigned short int ?--( volatile unsigned short int * ), |
---|
| 1077 | ?--( _Atomic volatile unsigned short int * ); |
---|
| 1078 | int ?--( volatile int * ), |
---|
| 1079 | ?--( _Atomic volatile int * ); |
---|
| 1080 | unsigned int ?--( volatile unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1081 | ?--( _Atomic volatile unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1082 | long int ?--( volatile long int * ), |
---|
| 1083 | ?--( _Atomic volatile long int * ); |
---|
| 1084 | long unsigned int ?--( volatile long unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1085 | ?--( _Atomic volatile long unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1086 | long long int ?--( volatile long long int * ), |
---|
| 1087 | ?--( _Atomic volatile long long int * ); |
---|
| 1088 | long long unsigned ?--( volatile long long unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1089 | ?--( _Atomic volatile long long unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1090 | float ?--( volatile float * ), |
---|
| 1091 | ?--( _Atomic volatile float * ); |
---|
| 1092 | double ?--( volatile double * ), |
---|
| 1093 | ?--( _Atomic volatile double * ); |
---|
| 1094 | long double ?--( volatile long double * ), |
---|
| 1095 | ?--( _Atomic volatile long double * ); |
---|
| 1096 | |
---|
| 1097 | forall( type T ) T * ?--( T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1098 | * ?--( T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1099 | |
---|
| 1100 | forall( type T ) _Atomic T * ?--( _Atomic T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1101 | * ?--( _Atomic T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1102 | |
---|
| 1103 | forall( type T ) const T * ?--( const T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1104 | * ?--( const T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1105 | |
---|
| 1106 | forall( type T ) volatile T * ?--( volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1107 | * ?--( volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1108 | |
---|
| 1109 | forall( type T ) restrict T * ?--( restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1110 | * ?--( restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1111 | |
---|
| 1112 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const T * ?--( _Atomic const T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1113 | * ?--( _Atomic const T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1114 | |
---|
| 1115 | forall( type T ) _Atomic restrict T * ?--( _Atomic restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1116 | * ?--( _Atomic restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1117 | |
---|
| 1118 | forall( type T ) _Atomic volatile T * ?--( _Atomic volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1119 | * ?--( _Atomic volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1120 | |
---|
| 1121 | forall( type T ) const restrict T * ?--( const restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1122 | * ?--( const restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1123 | |
---|
| 1124 | forall( type T ) const volatile T * ?--( const volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1125 | * ?--( const volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1126 | |
---|
| 1127 | forall( type T ) restrict volatile T * ?--( restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1128 | * ?--( restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1129 | |
---|
| 1130 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const restrict T * ?--( _Atomic const restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1131 | * ?--( _Atomic const restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1132 | |
---|
| 1133 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const volatile T * ?--( _Atomic const volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1134 | * ?--( _Atomic const volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1135 | |
---|
| 1136 | forall( type T ) _Atomic restrict volatile T * ?--( _Atomic restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1137 | * ?--( _Atomic restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1138 | |
---|
| 1139 | forall( type T ) const restrict volatile T * ?--( const restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1140 | * ?--( const restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1141 | |
---|
| 1142 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const restrict volatile T * ?--( _Atomic const restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1143 | * ?--( _Atomic const restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1144 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1145 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ there exist |
---|
| 1146 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 1147 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1148 | X ?++( volatile X * ), ?++( _Atomic volatile X * ), |
---|
| 1149 | ?--( volatile X * ), ?--( _Atomic volatile X * ); |
---|
| 1150 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1151 | For every complete enumerated type \lstinline$E$ there exist |
---|
| 1152 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 1153 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1154 | E ?++( volatile E * ), ?++( _Atomic volatile E * ), |
---|
| 1155 | ?--( volatile E * ), ?--( _Atomic volatile E * ); |
---|
| 1156 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1157 | |
---|
| 1158 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 1159 | Note that ``\lstinline$++$'' and ``\lstinline$--$'' are rewritten as function calls that are given a |
---|
| 1160 | pointer to that operand. (This is true of all operators that modify an operand.) As Hamish Macdonald |
---|
| 1161 | has pointed out, this forces the modified operand of such expressions to be an lvalue. This |
---|
| 1162 | partially enforces the C semantic rule that such operands must be \emph{modifiable} lvalues. |
---|
| 1163 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 1164 | |
---|
| 1165 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 1166 | In C, a semantic rule requires that pointer operands of increment and decrement be pointers to |
---|
| 1167 | object types. Hence, \lstinline$void *$ objects cannot be incremented. In \CFA, the restriction |
---|
| 1168 | follows from the use of a \lstinline$type$ parameter in the predefined function definitions, as |
---|
| 1169 | opposed to \lstinline$dtype$, since only object types can be inferred arguments corresponding to the |
---|
| 1170 | type parameter \lstinline$T$. |
---|
| 1171 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 1172 | |
---|
| 1173 | \semantics |
---|
| 1174 | First, each interpretation of the operand of an increment or decrement expression is considered |
---|
| 1175 | separately. For each interpretation that is a bit-field or is declared with the |
---|
| 1176 | \lstinline$register$\index{register@{\lstinline$register$}} storage-class |
---|
| 1177 | specifier\index{storage-class specifier}, the expression has one valid interpretation, with the type |
---|
| 1178 | of the operand, and the expression is ambiguous if the operand is. |
---|
| 1179 | |
---|
| 1180 | For the remaining interpretations, the expression is rewritten, and the interpretations of the |
---|
| 1181 | expression are the interpretations of the corresponding function call. Finally, all interpretations |
---|
| 1182 | of the expression produced for the different interpretations of the operand are combined to produce |
---|
| 1183 | the interpretations of the expression as a whole; where interpretations have compatible result |
---|
| 1184 | types, the best interpretations are selected in the manner described for function call expressions. |
---|
| 1185 | |
---|
| 1186 | \examples |
---|
| 1187 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1188 | volatile short int vs; vs++; // rewritten as ?++( &(vs) ) |
---|
| 1189 | short int s; s++; |
---|
| 1190 | const short int cs; cs++; |
---|
| 1191 | _Atomic short int as; as++; |
---|
| 1192 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1193 | \begin{sloppypar} |
---|
| 1194 | Since \lstinline$&(vs)$ has type \lstinline$volatile short int *$, the best valid interpretation of |
---|
| 1195 | \lstinline$vs++$ calls the \lstinline$?++$ function with the \lstinline$volatile short *$ parameter. |
---|
| 1196 | \lstinline$s++$ does the same, applying the safe conversion from \lstinline$short int *$ to |
---|
| 1197 | \lstinline$volatile short int *$. Note that there is no conversion that adds an \lstinline$_Atomic$ |
---|
| 1198 | qualifier, so the \lstinline$_Atomic volatile short int$ overloading does not provide a valid |
---|
| 1199 | interpretation. |
---|
| 1200 | \end{sloppypar} |
---|
| 1201 | |
---|
| 1202 | There is no safe conversion from \lstinline$const short int *$ to \lstinline$volatile short int *$, |
---|
| 1203 | and no \lstinline$?++$ function that accepts a \lstinline$const *$ parameter, so \lstinline$cs++$ |
---|
| 1204 | has no valid interpretations. |
---|
| 1205 | |
---|
| 1206 | The best valid interpretation of \lstinline$as++$ calls the \lstinline$short ?++$ function with the |
---|
| 1207 | \lstinline$_Atomic volatile short int *$ parameter, applying a safe conversion to add the |
---|
| 1208 | \lstinline$volatile$ qualifier. |
---|
| 1209 | |
---|
| 1210 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1211 | char * const restrict volatile * restrict volatile pqpc; pqpc++ |
---|
| 1212 | char * * restrict volatile ppc; ppc++; |
---|
| 1213 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1214 | Since \lstinline$&(pqpc)$ has type \lstinline$char * const restrict volatile * restrict volatile *$, |
---|
| 1215 | the best valid interpretation of \lstinline$pqpc++$ calls the polymorphic \lstinline$?++$ function |
---|
| 1216 | with the \lstinline$const restrict volatile T * restrict volatile *$ parameter, inferring |
---|
| 1217 | \lstinline$T$ to be \lstinline$char *$. |
---|
| 1218 | |
---|
| 1219 | \begin{sloppypar} |
---|
| 1220 | \lstinline$ppc++$ calls the same function, again inferring \lstinline$T$ to be \lstinline$char *$, |
---|
| 1221 | and using the safe conversions from \lstinline$T$ to \lstinline$T const restrict volatile$. |
---|
| 1222 | \end{sloppypar} |
---|
| 1223 | |
---|
| 1224 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 1225 | Increment and decrement expressions show up a deficiency of \CFA's type system. There is no such |
---|
| 1226 | thing as a pointer to a register object or bit-field\index{deficiencies!pointers to bit-fields}. |
---|
| 1227 | Therefore, there is no way to define a function that alters them, and hence no way to define |
---|
| 1228 | increment and decrement functions for them. As a result, the semantics of increment and decrement |
---|
| 1229 | expressions must treat them specially. This holds true for all of the operators that may modify |
---|
| 1230 | such objects. |
---|
| 1231 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 1232 | |
---|
| 1233 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 1234 | The polymorphic overloadings for pointer increment and decrement can be understood by considering |
---|
| 1235 | increasingly complex types. |
---|
| 1236 | \begin{enumerate} |
---|
| 1237 | \item |
---|
| 1238 | ``\lstinline$char * p; p++;$''. The argument to \lstinline$?++$ has type \lstinline$char * *$, and |
---|
| 1239 | the result has type \lstinline$char *$. The expression would be valid if \lstinline$?++$ were |
---|
| 1240 | declared by |
---|
| 1241 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1242 | forall( type T ) T * ?++( T * * ); |
---|
| 1243 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1244 | with \lstinline$T$ inferred to be \lstinline$char$. |
---|
| 1245 | |
---|
| 1246 | \item |
---|
| 1247 | ``\lstinline$char *restrict volatile qp; qp++$''. The result again has type \lstinline$char *$, but |
---|
| 1248 | the argument now has type \lstinline$char *restrict volatile *$, so it cannot be passed to the |
---|
| 1249 | hypothetical function declared in point 1. Hence the actual predefined function is |
---|
| 1250 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1251 | forall( type T ) T * ?++( T * restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1252 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1253 | which also accepts a \lstinline$char * *$ argument, because of the safe conversions that add |
---|
| 1254 | \lstinline$volatile$ and \lstinline$restrict$ qualifiers. (The parameter is not const-qualified, so |
---|
| 1255 | constant pointers cannot be incremented.) |
---|
| 1256 | |
---|
| 1257 | \item |
---|
| 1258 | ``\lstinline$char *_Atomic ap; ap++$''. The result again has type \lstinline$char *$, but no safe |
---|
| 1259 | conversion adds an \lstinline$_Atomic$ qualifier, so the function in point 2 is not applicable. A |
---|
| 1260 | separate overloading of \lstinline$?++$ is required. |
---|
| 1261 | |
---|
| 1262 | \item |
---|
| 1263 | ``\lstinline$char const volatile * pq; pq++$''. Here the result has type |
---|
| 1264 | \lstinline$char const volatile *$, so a new overloading is needed: |
---|
| 1265 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1266 | forall( type T ) T const volatile * ?++( T const volatile *restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1267 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1268 | One overloading is needed for each combination of qualifiers in the pointed-at |
---|
| 1269 | type\index{deficiencies!pointers to qualified types}. |
---|
| 1270 | |
---|
| 1271 | \item |
---|
| 1272 | ``\lstinline$float *restrict * prp; prp++$''. The \lstinline$restrict$ qualifier is handled just |
---|
| 1273 | like \lstinline$const$ and \lstinline$volatile$ in the previous case: |
---|
| 1274 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1275 | forall( type T ) T restrict * ?++( T restrict *restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1276 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1277 | with \lstinline$T$ inferred to be \lstinline$float *$. This looks odd, because {\c11} contains a |
---|
| 1278 | constraint that requires restrict-qualified types to be pointer-to-object types, and \lstinline$T$ |
---|
| 1279 | is not syntactically a pointer type. \CFA loosens the constraint. |
---|
| 1280 | \end{enumerate} |
---|
| 1281 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 1282 | |
---|
| 1283 | |
---|
| 1284 | \subsubsection{Compound literals} |
---|
| 1285 | |
---|
| 1286 | \semantics |
---|
| 1287 | A compound literal has one interpretation, with the type given by the \nonterm{type-name} of the |
---|
| 1288 | compound literal. |
---|
| 1289 | |
---|
| 1290 | |
---|
| 1291 | \subsection{Unary operators} |
---|
| 1292 | |
---|
| 1293 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 1294 | \lhs{unary-expression} |
---|
| 1295 | \rhs \nonterm{postfix-expression} |
---|
| 1296 | \rhs \lstinline$++$ \nonterm{unary-expression} |
---|
| 1297 | \rhs \lstinline$--$ \nonterm{unary-expression} |
---|
| 1298 | \rhs \nonterm{unary-operator} \nonterm{cast-expression} |
---|
| 1299 | \rhs \lstinline$sizeof$ \nonterm{unary-expression} |
---|
| 1300 | \rhs \lstinline$sizeof$ \lstinline$($ \nonterm{type-name} \lstinline$)$ |
---|
| 1301 | \lhs{unary-operator} one of \rhs \lstinline$&$ \lstinline$*$ \lstinline$+$ \lstinline$-$ \lstinline$~$ \lstinline$!$ |
---|
| 1302 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 1303 | |
---|
| 1304 | \rewriterules |
---|
| 1305 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1306 | *a @\rewrite@ *?(a) @\use{*?}@ |
---|
| 1307 | +a @\rewrite@ +?(a) @\use{+?}@ |
---|
| 1308 | -a @\rewrite@ -?(a) @\use{-?}@ |
---|
| 1309 | ~a @\rewrite@ ~?(a) @\use{~?}@ |
---|
| 1310 | !a @\rewrite@ !?(a) @\use{"!?}@ |
---|
| 1311 | ++a @\rewrite@ ++?(&(a)) @\use{++?}@ |
---|
| 1312 | --a @\rewrite@ --?(&(a)) @\use{--?}@ |
---|
| 1313 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1314 | |
---|
| 1315 | |
---|
| 1316 | \subsubsection{Prefix increment and decrement operators} |
---|
| 1317 | |
---|
| 1318 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1319 | _Bool ++?( volatile _Bool * ), |
---|
| 1320 | ++?( _Atomic volatile _Bool * ); |
---|
| 1321 | char ++?( volatile char * ), |
---|
| 1322 | ++?( _Atomic volatile char * ); |
---|
| 1323 | signed char ++?( volatile signed char * ), |
---|
| 1324 | ++?( _Atomic volatile signed char * ); |
---|
| 1325 | unsigned char ++?( volatile signed char * ), |
---|
| 1326 | ++?( _Atomic volatile signed char * ); |
---|
| 1327 | short int ++?( volatile short int * ), |
---|
| 1328 | ++?( _Atomic volatile short int * ); |
---|
| 1329 | unsigned short int ++?( volatile unsigned short int * ), |
---|
| 1330 | ++?( _Atomic volatile unsigned short int * ); |
---|
| 1331 | int ++?( volatile int * ), |
---|
| 1332 | ++?( _Atomic volatile int * ); |
---|
| 1333 | unsigned int ++?( volatile unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1334 | ++?( _Atomic volatile unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1335 | long int ++?( volatile long int * ), |
---|
| 1336 | ++?( _Atomic volatile long int * ); |
---|
| 1337 | long unsigned int ++?( volatile long unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1338 | ++?( _Atomic volatile long unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1339 | long long int ++?( volatile long long int * ), |
---|
| 1340 | ++?( _Atomic volatile long long int * ); |
---|
| 1341 | long long unsigned ++?( volatile long long unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1342 | ++?( _Atomic volatile long long unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1343 | float ++?( volatile float * ), |
---|
| 1344 | ++?( _Atomic volatile float * ); |
---|
| 1345 | double ++?( volatile double * ), |
---|
| 1346 | ++?( _Atomic volatile double * ); |
---|
| 1347 | long double ++?( volatile long double * ), |
---|
| 1348 | ++?( _Atomic volatile long double * ); |
---|
| 1349 | |
---|
| 1350 | forall( type T ) T * ++?( T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1351 | * ++?( T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1352 | |
---|
| 1353 | forall( type T ) _Atomic T * ++?( _Atomic T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1354 | * ++?( _Atomic T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1355 | |
---|
| 1356 | forall( type T ) const T * ++?( const T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1357 | * ++?( const T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1358 | |
---|
| 1359 | forall( type T ) volatile T * ++?( volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1360 | * ++?( volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1361 | |
---|
| 1362 | forall( type T ) restrict T * ++?( restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1363 | * ++?( restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1364 | |
---|
| 1365 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const T * ++?( _Atomic const T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1366 | * ++?( _Atomic const T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1367 | |
---|
| 1368 | forall( type T ) _Atomic volatile T * ++?( _Atomic volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1369 | * ++?( _Atomic volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1370 | |
---|
| 1371 | forall( type T ) _Atomic restrict T * ++?( _Atomic restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1372 | * ++?( _Atomic restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1373 | |
---|
| 1374 | forall( type T ) const volatile T * ++?( const volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1375 | * ++?( const volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1376 | |
---|
| 1377 | forall( type T ) const restrict T * ++?( const restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1378 | * ++?( const restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1379 | |
---|
| 1380 | forall( type T ) restrict volatile T * ++?( restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1381 | * ++?( restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1382 | |
---|
| 1383 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const volatile T * ++?( _Atomic const volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1384 | * ++?( _Atomic const volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1385 | |
---|
| 1386 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const restrict T * ++?( _Atomic const restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1387 | * ++?( _Atomic const restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1388 | |
---|
| 1389 | forall( type T ) _Atomic restrict volatile T * ++?( _Atomic restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1390 | * ++?( _Atomic restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1391 | |
---|
| 1392 | forall( type T ) const restrict volatile T * ++?( const restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1393 | * ++?( const restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1394 | |
---|
| 1395 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const restrict volatile T * ++?( _Atomic const restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1396 | * ++?( _Atomic const restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1397 | |
---|
| 1398 | _Bool --?( volatile _Bool * ), |
---|
| 1399 | --?( _Atomic volatile _Bool * ); |
---|
| 1400 | char --?( volatile char * ), |
---|
| 1401 | --?( _Atomic volatile char * ); |
---|
| 1402 | signed char --?( volatile signed char * ), |
---|
| 1403 | --?( _Atomic volatile signed char * ); |
---|
| 1404 | unsigned char --?( volatile signed char * ), |
---|
| 1405 | --?( _Atomic volatile signed char * ); |
---|
| 1406 | short int --?( volatile short int * ), |
---|
| 1407 | --?( _Atomic volatile short int * ); |
---|
| 1408 | unsigned short int --?( volatile unsigned short int * ), |
---|
| 1409 | --?( _Atomic volatile unsigned short int * ); |
---|
| 1410 | int --?( volatile int * ), |
---|
| 1411 | --?( _Atomic volatile int * ); |
---|
| 1412 | unsigned int --?( volatile unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1413 | --?( _Atomic volatile unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1414 | long int --?( volatile long int * ), |
---|
| 1415 | --?( _Atomic volatile long int * ); |
---|
| 1416 | long unsigned int --?( volatile long unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1417 | --?( _Atomic volatile long unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1418 | long long int --?( volatile long long int * ), |
---|
| 1419 | --?( _Atomic volatile long long int * ); |
---|
| 1420 | long long unsigned --?( volatile long long unsigned int * ), |
---|
| 1421 | --?( _Atomic volatile long long unsigned int * ); |
---|
| 1422 | float --?( volatile float * ), |
---|
| 1423 | --?( _Atomic volatile float * ); |
---|
| 1424 | double --?( volatile double * ), |
---|
| 1425 | --?( _Atomic volatile double * ); |
---|
| 1426 | long double --?( volatile long double * ), |
---|
| 1427 | --?( _Atomic volatile long double * ); |
---|
| 1428 | |
---|
| 1429 | forall( type T ) T * --?( T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1430 | * --?( T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1431 | |
---|
| 1432 | forall( type T ) _Atomic T * --?( _Atomic T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1433 | * --?( _Atomic T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1434 | |
---|
| 1435 | forall( type T ) const T * --?( const T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1436 | * --?( const T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1437 | |
---|
| 1438 | forall( type T ) volatile T * --?( volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1439 | * --?( volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1440 | |
---|
| 1441 | forall( type T ) restrict T * --?( restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1442 | * --?( restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1443 | |
---|
| 1444 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const T * --?( _Atomic const T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1445 | * --?( _Atomic const T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1446 | |
---|
| 1447 | forall( type T ) _Atomic volatile T * --?( _Atomic volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1448 | * --?( _Atomic volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1449 | |
---|
| 1450 | forall( type T ) _Atomic restrict T * --?( _Atomic restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1451 | * --?( _Atomic restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1452 | |
---|
| 1453 | forall( type T ) const volatile T * --?( const volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1454 | * --?( const volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1455 | |
---|
| 1456 | forall( type T ) const restrict T * --?( const restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1457 | * --?( const restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1458 | |
---|
| 1459 | forall( type T ) restrict volatile T * --?( restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1460 | * --?( restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1461 | |
---|
| 1462 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const volatile T * --?( _Atomic const volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1463 | * --?( _Atomic const volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1464 | |
---|
| 1465 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const restrict T * --?( _Atomic const restrict T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1466 | * --?( _Atomic const restrict T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1467 | |
---|
| 1468 | forall( type T ) _Atomic restrict volatile T * --?( _Atomic restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1469 | * --?( _Atomic restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1470 | |
---|
| 1471 | forall( type T ) const restrict volatile T * --?( const restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1472 | * --?( const restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1473 | |
---|
| 1474 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const restrict volatile T * --?( _Atomic const restrict volatile T * restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 1475 | * --?( _Atomic const restrict volatile T * _Atomic restrict volatile * ); |
---|
| 1476 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1477 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ there exist |
---|
| 1478 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 1479 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1480 | X ++?( volatile X * ), |
---|
| 1481 | ++?( _Atomic volatile X * ), |
---|
| 1482 | --?( volatile X * ), |
---|
| 1483 | --?( _Atomic volatile X * ); |
---|
| 1484 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1485 | For every complete enumerated type \lstinline$E$ there exist |
---|
| 1486 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 1487 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1488 | E ++?( volatile E * ), |
---|
| 1489 | ++?( _Atomic volatile E * ), |
---|
| 1490 | ?--( volatile E * ), |
---|
| 1491 | ?--( _Atomic volatile E * ); |
---|
| 1492 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1493 | |
---|
| 1494 | \semantics |
---|
| 1495 | The interpretations of prefix increment and decrement expressions are |
---|
| 1496 | determined in the same way as the interpretations of postfix increment and |
---|
| 1497 | decrement expressions. |
---|
| 1498 | |
---|
| 1499 | |
---|
| 1500 | \subsubsection{Address and indirection operators} |
---|
| 1501 | |
---|
| 1502 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1503 | forall( type T ) lvalue T *?( T * ); |
---|
| 1504 | forall( type T ) _Atomic lvalue T *?( _Atomic T * ); |
---|
| 1505 | forall( type T ) const lvalue T *?( const T * ); |
---|
| 1506 | forall( type T ) volatile lvalue T *?( volatile T * ); |
---|
| 1507 | forall( type T ) restrict lvalue T *?( restrict T * ); |
---|
| 1508 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const lvalue T *?( _Atomic const T * ); |
---|
| 1509 | forall( type T ) _Atomic volatile lvalue T *?( _Atomic volatile T * ); |
---|
| 1510 | forall( type T ) _Atomic restrict lvalue T *?( _Atomic restrict T * ); |
---|
| 1511 | forall( type T ) const volatile lvalue T *?( const volatile T * ); |
---|
| 1512 | forall( type T ) const restrict lvalue T *?( const restrict T * ); |
---|
| 1513 | forall( type T ) restrict volatile lvalue T *?( restrict volatile T * ); |
---|
| 1514 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const volatile lvalue T *?( _Atomic const volatile T * ); |
---|
| 1515 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const restrict lvalue T *?( _Atomic const restrict T * ); |
---|
| 1516 | forall( type T ) _Atomic restrict volatile lvalue T *?( _Atomic restrict volatile T * ); |
---|
| 1517 | forall( type T ) const restrict volatile lvalue T *?( const restrict volatile T * ); |
---|
| 1518 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const restrict volatile lvalue T *?( _Atomic const restrict volatile T * ); |
---|
| 1519 | |
---|
| 1520 | forall( ftype FT ) FT *?( FT * ); |
---|
| 1521 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1522 | |
---|
| 1523 | \constraints |
---|
| 1524 | The operand of the unary ``\lstinline$&$'' operator shall have exactly one |
---|
| 1525 | interpretation\index{ambiguous interpretation}\index{interpretations}, which shall be unambiguous. |
---|
| 1526 | |
---|
| 1527 | \semantics |
---|
| 1528 | The ``\lstinline$&$'' expression has one interpretation which is of type \lstinline$T *$, where |
---|
| 1529 | \lstinline$T$ is the type of the operand. |
---|
| 1530 | |
---|
| 1531 | The interpretations of an indirection expression are the interpretations of the corresponding |
---|
| 1532 | function call. |
---|
| 1533 | |
---|
| 1534 | |
---|
| 1535 | \subsubsection{Unary arithmetic operators} |
---|
| 1536 | |
---|
| 1537 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1538 | int |
---|
| 1539 | +?( int ), |
---|
| 1540 | -?( int ), |
---|
| 1541 | ~?( int ); |
---|
| 1542 | unsigned int |
---|
| 1543 | +?( unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1544 | -?( unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1545 | ~?( unsigned int ); |
---|
| 1546 | long int |
---|
| 1547 | +?( long int ), |
---|
| 1548 | -?( long int ), |
---|
| 1549 | ~?( long int ); |
---|
| 1550 | long unsigned int |
---|
| 1551 | +?( long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1552 | -?( long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1553 | ~?( long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 1554 | long long int |
---|
| 1555 | +?( long long int ), |
---|
| 1556 | -?( long long int ), |
---|
| 1557 | ~?( long long int ); |
---|
| 1558 | long long unsigned int |
---|
| 1559 | +?( long long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1560 | -?( long long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1561 | ~?( long long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 1562 | float |
---|
| 1563 | +?( float ), |
---|
| 1564 | -?( float ); |
---|
| 1565 | double |
---|
| 1566 | +?( double ), |
---|
| 1567 | -?( double ); |
---|
| 1568 | long double |
---|
| 1569 | +?( long double ), |
---|
| 1570 | -?( long double ); |
---|
| 1571 | _Complex float |
---|
| 1572 | +?( _Complex float ), |
---|
| 1573 | -?( _Complex float ); |
---|
| 1574 | _Complex double |
---|
| 1575 | +?( _Complex double ), |
---|
| 1576 | -?( _Complex double ); |
---|
| 1577 | _Complex long double |
---|
| 1578 | +?( _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 1579 | -?( _Complex long double ); |
---|
| 1580 | |
---|
| 1581 | int !?( int ), |
---|
| 1582 | !?( unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1583 | !?( long ), |
---|
| 1584 | !?( long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1585 | !?( long long int ), |
---|
| 1586 | !?( long long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1587 | !?( float ), |
---|
| 1588 | !?( double ), |
---|
| 1589 | !?( long double ), |
---|
| 1590 | !?( _Complex float ), |
---|
| 1591 | !?( _Complex double ), |
---|
| 1592 | !?( _Complex long double ); |
---|
| 1593 | |
---|
| 1594 | forall( dtype DT ) int !?( const restrict volatile DT * ); |
---|
| 1595 | forall( dtype DT ) int !?( _Atomic const restrict volatile DT * ); |
---|
| 1596 | forall( ftype FT ) int !?( FT * ); |
---|
| 1597 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1598 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ with integer conversion rank \index{integer conversion |
---|
| 1599 | rank}greater than the rank of \lstinline$int$ there exist |
---|
| 1600 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 1601 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1602 | X +?( X ), -?( X ), ~?( X ); |
---|
| 1603 | int !?( X ); |
---|
| 1604 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1605 | |
---|
| 1606 | \semantics |
---|
| 1607 | The interpretations of a unary arithmetic expression are the interpretations of the corresponding |
---|
| 1608 | function call. |
---|
| 1609 | |
---|
| 1610 | \examples |
---|
| 1611 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1612 | long int li; |
---|
| 1613 | void eat_double( double );@\use{eat_double}@ |
---|
| 1614 | |
---|
| 1615 | eat_double(-li ); // @\rewrite@ eat_double( -?( li ) ); |
---|
| 1616 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1617 | The valid interpretations of ``\lstinline$-li$'' (assuming no extended integer types exist) are |
---|
| 1618 | \begin{center} |
---|
| 1619 | \begin{tabular}{llc} |
---|
| 1620 | interpretation & result type & expression conversion cost \\ |
---|
| 1621 | \hline |
---|
| 1622 | \lstinline$-?( (int)li )$ & \lstinline$int$ & (unsafe) \\ |
---|
| 1623 | \lstinline$-?( (unsigned)li)$ & \lstinline$unsigned int$ & (unsafe) \\ |
---|
| 1624 | \lstinline$-?( (long)li)$ & \lstinline$long$ & 0 \\ |
---|
| 1625 | \lstinline$-?( (long unsigned int)li)$ & \lstinline$long unsigned int$ & 1 \\ |
---|
| 1626 | \lstinline$-?( (long long int)li)$ & \lstinline$long long int$ & 2 \\ |
---|
| 1627 | \lstinline$-?( (long long unsigned int)li)$ & \lstinline$long long unsigned int$& 3 \\ |
---|
| 1628 | \lstinline$-?( (float)li)$ & \lstinline$float$ & 4 \\ |
---|
| 1629 | \lstinline$-?( (double)li)$ & \lstinline$double$ & 5 \\ |
---|
| 1630 | \lstinline$-?( (long double)li)$ & \lstinline$long double$ & 6 \\ |
---|
| 1631 | \lstinline$-?( (_Complex float)li)$ & \lstinline$float$ & (unsafe) \\ |
---|
| 1632 | \lstinline$-?( (_Complex double)li)$ & \lstinline$double$ & (unsafe) \\ |
---|
| 1633 | \lstinline$-?( (_Complex long double)li)$ & \lstinline$long double$ & (unsafe) \\ |
---|
| 1634 | \end{tabular} |
---|
| 1635 | \end{center} |
---|
| 1636 | The valid interpretations of the \lstinline$eat_double$ call, with the cost of the argument |
---|
| 1637 | conversion and the cost of the entire expression, are |
---|
| 1638 | \begin{center} |
---|
| 1639 | \begin{tabular}{lcc} |
---|
| 1640 | interpretation & argument cost & expression cost \\ |
---|
| 1641 | \hline |
---|
| 1642 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?( (int)li) )$ & 7 & (unsafe) \\ |
---|
| 1643 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?( (unsigned)li) )$ & 6 & (unsafe) \\ |
---|
| 1644 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?(li) )$ & 5 & \(0+5=5\) \\ |
---|
| 1645 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?( (long unsigned int)li) )$ & 4 & \(1+4=5\) \\ |
---|
| 1646 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?( (long long int)li) )$ & 3 & \(2+3=5\) \\ |
---|
| 1647 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?( (long long unsigned int)li) )$& 2 & \(3+2=5\) \\ |
---|
| 1648 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?( (float)li) )$ & 1 & \(4+1=5\) \\ |
---|
| 1649 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?( (double)li) )$ & 0 & \(5+0=5\) \\ |
---|
| 1650 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?( (long double)li) )$ & (unsafe) & (unsafe) \\ |
---|
| 1651 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?( (_Complex float)li) )$ & (unsafe) & (unsafe) \\ |
---|
| 1652 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?( (_Complex double)li) )$ & (unsafe) & (unsafe) \\ |
---|
| 1653 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?( (_Complex long double)li) )$ & (unsafe) & (unsafe) \\ |
---|
| 1654 | \end{tabular} |
---|
| 1655 | \end{center} |
---|
| 1656 | Each has result type \lstinline$void$, so the best must be selected. The interpretations involving |
---|
| 1657 | unsafe conversions are discarded. The remainder have equal expression conversion costs, so the |
---|
| 1658 | ``highest argument conversion cost'' rule is invoked, and the chosen interpretation is |
---|
| 1659 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)-?(li) )$. |
---|
| 1660 | |
---|
| 1661 | |
---|
| 1662 | \subsubsection{The {\tt sizeof} and {\tt \_Alignof} operators} |
---|
| 1663 | |
---|
| 1664 | \constraints |
---|
| 1665 | The operand of \lstinline$sizeof$ or \lstinline$_Alignof$ shall not be \lstinline$type$, |
---|
| 1666 | \lstinline$dtype$, or \lstinline$ftype$. |
---|
| 1667 | |
---|
| 1668 | When the \lstinline$sizeof$\use{sizeof} operator is applied to an expression, the expression shall |
---|
| 1669 | have exactly one interpretation\index{ambiguous interpretation}\index{interpretations}, which shall |
---|
| 1670 | be unambiguous. \semantics A \lstinline$sizeof$ or \lstinline$_Alignof$ expression has one |
---|
| 1671 | interpretation, of type \lstinline$size_t$. |
---|
| 1672 | |
---|
| 1673 | When \lstinline$sizeof$ is applied to an identifier declared by a \nonterm{type-declaration} or a |
---|
| 1674 | \nonterm{type-parameter}, it yields the size in bytes of the type that implements the operand. When |
---|
| 1675 | the operand is an opaque type or an inferred type parameter\index{inferred parameter}, the |
---|
| 1676 | expression is not a constant expression. |
---|
| 1677 | |
---|
| 1678 | When \lstinline$_Alignof$ is applied to an identifier declared by a \nonterm{type-declaration} or a |
---|
| 1679 | \nonterm{type-parameter}, it yields the alignment requirement of the type that implements the |
---|
| 1680 | operand. When the operand is an opaque type or an inferred type parameter\index{inferred |
---|
| 1681 | parameter}, the expression is not a constant expression. |
---|
| 1682 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 1683 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1684 | type Pair = struct { int first, second; }; |
---|
| 1685 | size_t p_size = sizeof(Pair); // constant expression |
---|
| 1686 | |
---|
| 1687 | extern type Rational;@\use{Rational}@ |
---|
| 1688 | size_t c_size = sizeof(Rational); // non-constant expression |
---|
| 1689 | |
---|
| 1690 | forall(type T) T f(T p1, T p2) { |
---|
| 1691 | size_t t_size = sizeof(T); // non-constant expression |
---|
| 1692 | ... |
---|
| 1693 | } |
---|
| 1694 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1695 | ``\lstinline$sizeof Rational$'', although not statically known, is fixed. Within \lstinline$f()$, |
---|
| 1696 | ``\lstinline$sizeof(T)$'' is fixed for each call of \lstinline$f()$, but may vary from call to call. |
---|
| 1697 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 1698 | |
---|
| 1699 | \subsection{Cast operators} |
---|
| 1700 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 1701 | \lhs{cast-expression} |
---|
| 1702 | \rhs \nonterm{unary-expression} |
---|
| 1703 | \rhs \lstinline$($ \nonterm{type-name} \lstinline$)$ \nonterm{cast-expression} |
---|
| 1704 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 1705 | |
---|
| 1706 | \constraints |
---|
| 1707 | The \nonterm{type-name} in a \nonterm{cast-expression} shall not be \lstinline$type$, |
---|
| 1708 | \lstinline$dtype$, or \lstinline$ftype$. |
---|
| 1709 | |
---|
| 1710 | \semantics |
---|
| 1711 | |
---|
| 1712 | In a cast expression\index{cast expression} ``\lstinline$($\nonterm{type-name}\lstinline$)e$'', if |
---|
| 1713 | \nonterm{type-name} is the type of an interpretation of \lstinline$e$, then that interpretation is the |
---|
| 1714 | only interpretation of the cast expression; otherwise, \lstinline$e$ shall have some interpretation that |
---|
| 1715 | can be converted to \nonterm{type-name}, and the interpretation of the cast expression is the cast |
---|
| 1716 | of the interpretation that can be converted at the lowest cost. The cast expression's interpretation |
---|
| 1717 | is ambiguous\index{ambiguous interpretation} if more than one interpretation can be converted at the |
---|
| 1718 | lowest cost or if the selected interpretation is ambiguous. |
---|
| 1719 | |
---|
| 1720 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 1721 | Casts can be used to eliminate ambiguity in expressions by selecting interpretations of |
---|
| 1722 | subexpressions, and to specialize polymorphic functions and values. |
---|
| 1723 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 1724 | |
---|
| 1725 | \subsection{Multiplicative operators} |
---|
| 1726 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 1727 | \lhs{multiplicative-expression} |
---|
| 1728 | \rhs \nonterm{cast-expression} |
---|
| 1729 | \rhs \nonterm{multiplicative-expression} \lstinline$*$ \nonterm{cast-expression} |
---|
| 1730 | \rhs \nonterm{multiplicative-expression} \lstinline$/$ \nonterm{cast-expression} |
---|
| 1731 | \rhs \nonterm{multiplicative-expression} \lstinline$%$ \nonterm{cast-expression} |
---|
| 1732 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 1733 | |
---|
| 1734 | \rewriterules |
---|
| 1735 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1736 | a * b @\rewrite@ ?*?( a, b )@\use{?*?}@ |
---|
| 1737 | a / b @\rewrite@ ?/?( a, b )@\use{?/?}@ |
---|
| 1738 | a % b @\rewrite@ ?%?( a, b )@\use{?%?}@ |
---|
| 1739 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1740 | |
---|
| 1741 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1742 | int?*?( int, int ), |
---|
| 1743 | ?/?( int, int ), |
---|
| 1744 | ?%?( int, int ); |
---|
| 1745 | unsigned int?*?( unsigned int, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1746 | ?/?( unsigned int, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1747 | ?%?( unsigned int, unsigned int ); |
---|
| 1748 | long int?*?( long int, long int ), |
---|
| 1749 | ?/?( long, long ), |
---|
| 1750 | ?%?( long, long ); |
---|
| 1751 | long unsigned int?*?( long unsigned int, long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1752 | ?/?( long unsigned int, long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1753 | ?%?( long unsigned int, long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 1754 | long long int?*?( long long int, long long int ), |
---|
| 1755 | ?/?( long long int, long long int ), |
---|
| 1756 | ?%?( long long int, long long int ); |
---|
| 1757 | long long unsigned int ?*?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1758 | ?/?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1759 | ?%?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 1760 | float?*?( float, float ), |
---|
| 1761 | ?/?( float, float ); |
---|
| 1762 | double?*?( double, double ), |
---|
| 1763 | ?/?( double, double ); |
---|
| 1764 | long double?*?( long double, long double ), |
---|
| 1765 | ?/?( long double, long double ); |
---|
| 1766 | _Complex float?*?( float, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 1767 | ?/?( float, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 1768 | ?*?( _Complex float, float ), |
---|
| 1769 | ?/?( _Complex float, float ), |
---|
| 1770 | ?*?( _Complex float, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 1771 | ?/?( _Complex float, _Complex float ); |
---|
| 1772 | _Complex double?*?( double, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 1773 | ?/?( double, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 1774 | ?*?( _Complex double, double ), |
---|
| 1775 | ?/?( _Complex double, double ), |
---|
| 1776 | ?*?( _Complex double, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 1777 | ?/?( _Complex double, _Complex double ); |
---|
| 1778 | _Complex long double?*?( long double, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 1779 | ?/?( long double, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 1780 | ?*?( _Complex long double, long double ), |
---|
| 1781 | ?/?( _Complex long double, long double ), |
---|
| 1782 | ?*?( _Complex long double, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 1783 | ?/?( _Complex long double, _Complex long double ); |
---|
| 1784 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1785 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ with integer conversion rank \index{integer conversion |
---|
| 1786 | rank}greater than the rank of \lstinline$int$ there exist |
---|
| 1787 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 1788 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1789 | X ?*?( X ), ?/?( X ), ?%?( X ); |
---|
| 1790 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1791 | |
---|
| 1792 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 1793 | {\c11} does not include conversions from the real types\index{real type} to complex |
---|
| 1794 | types\index{complex type} in the usual arithmetic conversions\index{usual arithmetic conversions}. |
---|
| 1795 | Instead it specifies conversion of the result of binary operations on arguments from mixed type |
---|
| 1796 | domains. \CFA's predefined operators match that pattern. |
---|
| 1797 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 1798 | |
---|
| 1799 | \semantics |
---|
| 1800 | The interpretations of multiplicative expressions are the interpretations of the corresponding |
---|
| 1801 | function call. |
---|
| 1802 | |
---|
| 1803 | \examples |
---|
| 1804 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1805 | int i; |
---|
| 1806 | long li; |
---|
| 1807 | void eat_double( double );@\use{eat_double}@ |
---|
| 1808 | eat_double( li % i ); |
---|
| 1809 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1810 | ``\lstinline$li % i$'' is rewritten as ``\lstinline$?%?(li, i )$''. The valid interpretations |
---|
| 1811 | of \lstinline$?%?(li, i )$, the cost\index{conversion cost} of converting their arguments, and |
---|
| 1812 | the cost of converting the result to \lstinline$double$ (assuming no extended integer types are |
---|
| 1813 | present ) are |
---|
| 1814 | \begin{center} |
---|
| 1815 | \begin{tabular}{lcc} |
---|
| 1816 | interpretation & argument cost & result cost \\ |
---|
| 1817 | \hline |
---|
| 1818 | \lstinline$ ?%?( (int)li, i )$ & (unsafe) & 6 \\ |
---|
| 1819 | \lstinline$ ?%?( (unsigned)li,(unsigned)i )$ & (unsafe) & 5 \\ |
---|
| 1820 | \lstinline$ ?%?(li,(long)i )$ & 1 & 4 \\ |
---|
| 1821 | \lstinline$ ?%?( (long unsigned)li,(long unsigned)i )$ & 3 & 3 \\ |
---|
| 1822 | \lstinline$ ?%?( (long long)li,(long long)i )$ & 5 & 2 \\ |
---|
| 1823 | \lstinline$ ?%?( (long long unsigned)li, (long long unsigned)i )$ & 7 & 1 \\ |
---|
| 1824 | \end{tabular} |
---|
| 1825 | \end{center} |
---|
| 1826 | The best interpretation of \lstinline$eat_double( li, i )$ is |
---|
| 1827 | \lstinline$eat_double( (double)?%?(li, (long)i ))$, which has no unsafe conversions and the |
---|
| 1828 | lowest total cost. |
---|
| 1829 | |
---|
| 1830 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 1831 | {\c11} defines most arithmetic operations to apply an integer promotion\index{integer promotions} to |
---|
| 1832 | any argument that belongs to a type that has an integer conversion rank\index{integer conversion |
---|
| 1833 | rank} less than that of \lstinline$int$.If \lstinline$s$ is a \lstinline$short int$, |
---|
| 1834 | ``\lstinline$s *s$'' does not have type \lstinline$short int$; it is treated as |
---|
| 1835 | ``\lstinline$( (int)s ) * ( (int)s )$'', and has type \lstinline$int$. \CFA matches that pattern; |
---|
| 1836 | it does not predefine ``\lstinline$short ?*?( short, short )$''. |
---|
| 1837 | |
---|
| 1838 | These ``missing'' operators limit polymorphism. Consider |
---|
| 1839 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1840 | forall( type T | T ?*?( T, T ) ) T square( T ); |
---|
| 1841 | short s; |
---|
| 1842 | square( s ); |
---|
| 1843 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1844 | Since \CFA does not define a multiplication operator for \lstinline$short int$, |
---|
| 1845 | \lstinline$square( s )$ is treated as \lstinline$square( (int)s )$, and the result has type |
---|
| 1846 | \lstinline$int$. This is mildly surprising, but it follows the {\c11} operator pattern. |
---|
| 1847 | |
---|
| 1848 | A more troubling example is |
---|
| 1849 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1850 | forall( type T | ?*?( T, T ) ) T product( T[], int n ); |
---|
| 1851 | short sa[5]; |
---|
| 1852 | product( sa, 5); |
---|
| 1853 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1854 | This has no valid interpretations, because \CFA has no conversion from ``array of |
---|
| 1855 | \lstinline$short int$'' to ``array of \lstinline$int$''. The alternatives in such situations |
---|
| 1856 | include |
---|
| 1857 | \begin{itemize} |
---|
| 1858 | \item |
---|
| 1859 | Defining monomorphic overloadings of \lstinline$product$ for \lstinline$short$ and the other |
---|
| 1860 | ``small'' types. |
---|
| 1861 | \item |
---|
| 1862 | Defining ``\lstinline$short ?*?( short, short )$'' within the scope containing the call to |
---|
| 1863 | \lstinline$product$. |
---|
| 1864 | \item |
---|
| 1865 | Defining \lstinline$product$ to take as an argument a conversion function from the ``small'' type to |
---|
| 1866 | the operator's argument type. |
---|
| 1867 | \end{itemize} |
---|
| 1868 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 1869 | |
---|
| 1870 | |
---|
| 1871 | \subsection{Additive operators} |
---|
| 1872 | |
---|
| 1873 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 1874 | \lhs{additive-expression} |
---|
| 1875 | \rhs \nonterm{multiplicative-expression} |
---|
| 1876 | \rhs \nonterm{additive-expression} \lstinline$+$ \nonterm{multiplicative-expression} |
---|
| 1877 | \rhs \nonterm{additive-expression} \lstinline$-$ \nonterm{multiplicative-expression} |
---|
| 1878 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 1879 | |
---|
| 1880 | \rewriterules |
---|
| 1881 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1882 | a + b @\rewrite@ ?+?( a, b )@\use{?+?}@ |
---|
| 1883 | a - b @\rewrite@ ?-?( a, b )@\use{?-?}@ |
---|
| 1884 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1885 | |
---|
| 1886 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1887 | int?+?( int, int ), |
---|
| 1888 | ?-?( int, int ); |
---|
| 1889 | unsigned int?+?( unsigned int, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1890 | ?-?( unsigned int, unsigned int ); |
---|
| 1891 | long int?+?( long int, long int ), |
---|
| 1892 | ?-?( long int, long int ); |
---|
| 1893 | long unsigned int?+?( long unsigned int, long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1894 | ?-?( long unsigned int, long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 1895 | long long int?+?( long long int, long long int ), |
---|
| 1896 | ?-?( long long int, long long int ); |
---|
| 1897 | long long unsigned int ?+?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 1898 | ?-?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 1899 | float?+?( float, float ), |
---|
| 1900 | ?-?( float, float ); |
---|
| 1901 | double?+?( double, double ), |
---|
| 1902 | ?-?( double, double ); |
---|
| 1903 | long double?+?( long double, long double ), |
---|
| 1904 | ?-?( long double, long double ); |
---|
| 1905 | _Complex float?+?( _Complex float, float ), |
---|
| 1906 | ?-?( _Complex float, float ), |
---|
| 1907 | ?+?( float, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 1908 | ?-?( float, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 1909 | ?+?( _Complex float, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 1910 | ?-?( _Complex float, _Complex float ); |
---|
| 1911 | _Complex double?+?( _Complex double, double ), |
---|
| 1912 | ?-?( _Complex double, double ), |
---|
| 1913 | ?+?( double, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 1914 | ?-?( double, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 1915 | ?+?( _Complex double, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 1916 | ?-?( _Complex double, _Complex double ); |
---|
| 1917 | _Complex long double?+?( _Complex long double, long double ), |
---|
| 1918 | ?-?( _Complex long double, long double ), |
---|
| 1919 | ?+?( long double, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 1920 | ?-?( long double, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 1921 | ?+?( _Complex long double, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 1922 | ?-?( _Complex long double, _Complex long double ); |
---|
| 1923 | |
---|
| 1924 | forall( type T ) T |
---|
| 1925 | * ?+?( T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1926 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, T * ), |
---|
| 1927 | * ?-?( T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1928 | |
---|
| 1929 | forall( type T ) _Atomic T |
---|
| 1930 | * ?+?( _Atomic T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1931 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, _Atomic T * ), |
---|
| 1932 | * ?-?( _Atomic T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1933 | |
---|
| 1934 | forall( type T ) const T |
---|
| 1935 | * ?+?( const T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1936 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, const T * ), |
---|
| 1937 | * ?-?( const T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1938 | |
---|
| 1939 | forall( type T ) restrict T |
---|
| 1940 | * ?+?( restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1941 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, restrict T * ), |
---|
| 1942 | * ?-?( restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1943 | |
---|
| 1944 | forall( type T ) volatile T |
---|
| 1945 | * ?+?( volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1946 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, volatile T * ), |
---|
| 1947 | * ?-?( volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1948 | |
---|
| 1949 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const T |
---|
| 1950 | * ?+?( _Atomic const T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1951 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, _Atomic const T * ), |
---|
| 1952 | * ?-?( _Atomic const T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1953 | |
---|
| 1954 | forall( type T ) _Atomic restrict T |
---|
| 1955 | * ?+?( _Atomic restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1956 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, _Atomic restrict T * ), |
---|
| 1957 | * ?-?( _Atomic restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1958 | |
---|
| 1959 | forall( type T ) _Atomic volatile T |
---|
| 1960 | * ?+?( _Atomic volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1961 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, _Atomic volatile T * ), |
---|
| 1962 | * ?-?( _Atomic volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1963 | |
---|
| 1964 | forall( type T ) const restrict T |
---|
| 1965 | * ?+?( const restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1966 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, const restrict T * ), |
---|
| 1967 | * ?-?( const restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1968 | |
---|
| 1969 | forall( type T ) const volatile T |
---|
| 1970 | * ?+?( const volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1971 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, const volatile T * ), |
---|
| 1972 | * ?-?( const volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1973 | |
---|
| 1974 | forall( type T ) restrict volatile T |
---|
| 1975 | * ?+?( restrict volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1976 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, restrict volatile T * ), |
---|
| 1977 | * ?-?( restrict volatile T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1978 | |
---|
| 1979 | forall( type T ) _Atomic const restrict T |
---|
| 1980 | * ?+?( _Atomic const restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 1981 | * ?+?( ptrdiff_t, _Atomic const restrict T * ), |
---|
| 1982 | * ?-?( _Atomic const restrict T *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 1983 | |
---|
| 1984 | forall( type T ) ptrdiff_t |
---|
| 1985 | * ?-?( const restrict volatile T *, const restrict volatile T * ), |
---|
| 1986 | * ?-?( _Atomic const restrict volatile T *, _Atomic const restrict volatile T * ); |
---|
| 1987 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1988 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ with integer conversion rank |
---|
| 1989 | \index{integer conversion rank}greater than the rank of \lstinline$int$ there |
---|
| 1990 | exist |
---|
| 1991 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 1992 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1993 | X ?+?( X ), ?-?( X ); |
---|
| 1994 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 1995 | |
---|
| 1996 | \semantics |
---|
| 1997 | The interpretations of additive expressions are the interpretations of the corresponding function |
---|
| 1998 | calls. |
---|
| 1999 | |
---|
| 2000 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 2001 | \lstinline$ptrdiff_t$ is an implementation-defined identifier defined in \lstinline$<stddef.h>$ that |
---|
| 2002 | is synonymous with a signed integral type that is large enough to hold the difference between two |
---|
| 2003 | pointers. It seems reasonable to use it for pointer addition as well. (This is technically a |
---|
| 2004 | difference between \CFA and C, which only specifies that pointer addition uses an \emph{integral} |
---|
| 2005 | argument.) Hence it is also used for subscripting, which is defined in terms of pointer addition. |
---|
| 2006 | The {\c11} standard uses \lstinline$size_t$ in several cases where a library function takes an |
---|
| 2007 | argument that is used as a subscript, but \lstinline$size_t$ is unsuitable here because it is an |
---|
| 2008 | unsigned type. |
---|
| 2009 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 2010 | |
---|
| 2011 | |
---|
| 2012 | \subsection{Bitwise shift operators} |
---|
| 2013 | |
---|
| 2014 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 2015 | \lhs{shift-expression} |
---|
| 2016 | \rhs \nonterm{additive-expression} |
---|
| 2017 | \rhs \nonterm{shift-expression} \lstinline$<<$ \nonterm{additive-expression} |
---|
| 2018 | \rhs \nonterm{shift-expression} \lstinline$>>$ \nonterm{additive-expression} |
---|
| 2019 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 2020 | |
---|
| 2021 | \rewriterules \use{?>>?}%use{?<<?} |
---|
| 2022 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2023 | a << b @\rewrite@ ?<<?( a, b ) |
---|
| 2024 | a >> b @\rewrite@ ?>>?( a, b ) |
---|
| 2025 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2026 | |
---|
| 2027 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2028 | int ?<<?( int, int ), |
---|
| 2029 | ?>>?( int, int ); |
---|
| 2030 | unsigned int ?<<?( unsigned int, int ), |
---|
| 2031 | ?>>?( unsigned int, int ); |
---|
| 2032 | long int ?<<?( long int, int ), |
---|
| 2033 | ?>>?( long int, int ); |
---|
| 2034 | long unsigned int ?<<?( long unsigned int, int ), |
---|
| 2035 | ?>>?( long unsigned int, int ); |
---|
| 2036 | long long int ?<<?( long long int, int ), |
---|
| 2037 | ?>>?( long long int, int ); |
---|
| 2038 | long long unsigned int ?<<?( long long unsigned int, int ), |
---|
| 2039 | ?>>?( long long unsigned int, int); |
---|
| 2040 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2041 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ with integer conversion rank \index{integer conversion |
---|
| 2042 | rank}greater than the rank of \lstinline$int$ there exist |
---|
| 2043 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 2044 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2045 | X ?<<?( X, int ), ?>>?( X, int ); |
---|
| 2046 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2047 | |
---|
| 2048 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 2049 | The bitwise shift operators break the usual pattern: they do not convert both operands to a common |
---|
| 2050 | type. The right operand only undergoes integer promotion\index{integer promotion}. |
---|
| 2051 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 2052 | |
---|
| 2053 | \semantics |
---|
| 2054 | The interpretations of a bitwise shift expression are the interpretations of the corresponding |
---|
| 2055 | function calls. |
---|
| 2056 | |
---|
| 2057 | |
---|
| 2058 | \subsection{Relational operators} |
---|
| 2059 | |
---|
| 2060 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 2061 | \lhs{relational-expression} |
---|
| 2062 | \rhs \nonterm{shift-expression} |
---|
| 2063 | \rhs \nonterm{relational-expression} \lstinline$< $ \nonterm{shift-expression} |
---|
| 2064 | \rhs \nonterm{relational-expression} \lstinline$> $ \nonterm{shift-expression} |
---|
| 2065 | \rhs \nonterm{relational-expression} \lstinline$<=$ \nonterm{shift-expression} |
---|
| 2066 | \rhs \nonterm{relational-expression} \lstinline$>=$ \nonterm{shift-expression} |
---|
| 2067 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 2068 | |
---|
| 2069 | \rewriterules\use{?>?}\use{?>=?}%use{?<?}%use{?<=?} |
---|
| 2070 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2071 | a < b @\rewrite@ ?<?( a, b ) |
---|
| 2072 | a > b @\rewrite@ ?>?( a, b ) |
---|
| 2073 | a <= b @\rewrite@ ?<=?( a, b ) |
---|
| 2074 | a >= b @\rewrite@ ?>=?( a, b ) |
---|
| 2075 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2076 | |
---|
| 2077 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2078 | int ?<?( int, int ), |
---|
| 2079 | ?<=?( int, int ), |
---|
| 2080 | ?>?( int, int ), |
---|
| 2081 | ?>=?( int, int ); |
---|
| 2082 | int ?<?( unsigned int, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 2083 | ?<=?( unsigned int, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 2084 | ?>?( unsigned int, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 2085 | ?>=?( unsigned int, unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2086 | int ?<?( long int, long int ), |
---|
| 2087 | ?<=?( long int, long int ), |
---|
| 2088 | ?>?( long int, long int ), |
---|
| 2089 | ?>=?( long int, long int ); |
---|
| 2090 | int ?<?( long unsigned int, long unsigned ), |
---|
| 2091 | ?<=?( long unsigned int, long unsigned ), |
---|
| 2092 | ?>?( long unsigned int, long unsigned ), |
---|
| 2093 | ?>=?( long unsigned int, long unsigned ); |
---|
| 2094 | int ?<?( long long int, long long int ), |
---|
| 2095 | ?<=?( long long int, long long int ), |
---|
| 2096 | ?>?( long long int, long long int ), |
---|
| 2097 | ?>=?( long long int, long long int ); |
---|
| 2098 | int ?<?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned ), |
---|
| 2099 | ?<=?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned ), |
---|
| 2100 | ?>?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned ), |
---|
| 2101 | ?>=?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned ); |
---|
| 2102 | int ?<?( float, float ), |
---|
| 2103 | ?<=?( float, float ), |
---|
| 2104 | ?>?( float, float ), |
---|
| 2105 | ?>=?( float, float ); |
---|
| 2106 | int ?<?( double, double ), |
---|
| 2107 | ?<=?( double, double ), |
---|
| 2108 | ?>?( double, double ), |
---|
| 2109 | ?>=?( double, double ); |
---|
| 2110 | int ?<?( long double, long double ), |
---|
| 2111 | ?<=?( long double, long double ), |
---|
| 2112 | ?>?( long double, long double ), |
---|
| 2113 | ?>=?( long double, long double ); |
---|
| 2114 | |
---|
| 2115 | forall( dtype DT ) int |
---|
| 2116 | ?<?( const restrict volatile DT *, const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2117 | ?<?( _Atomic const restrict volatile DT *, _Atomic const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2118 | ?<=?( const restrict volatile DT *, const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2119 | ?<=?( _Atomic const restrict volatile DT *, _Atomic const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2120 | ?>?( const restrict volatile DT *, const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2121 | ?>?( _Atomic const restrict volatile DT *, _Atomic const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2122 | ?>=?( const restrict volatile DT *, const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2123 | ?>=?( _Atomic const restrict volatile DT *, _Atomic const restrict volatile DT * ); |
---|
| 2124 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2125 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ with integer conversion rank \index{integer conversion |
---|
| 2126 | rank}greater than the rank of \lstinline$int$ there exist |
---|
| 2127 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 2128 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2129 | int ?<?( X, X ), |
---|
| 2130 | ?<=?( X, X ), |
---|
| 2131 | ?<?( X, X ), |
---|
| 2132 | ?>=?( X, X ); |
---|
| 2133 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2134 | |
---|
| 2135 | \semantics |
---|
| 2136 | The interpretations of a relational expression are the interpretations of the corresponding function |
---|
| 2137 | call. |
---|
| 2138 | |
---|
| 2139 | |
---|
| 2140 | \subsection{Equality operators} |
---|
| 2141 | |
---|
| 2142 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 2143 | \lhs{equality-expression} |
---|
| 2144 | \rhs \nonterm{relational-expression} |
---|
| 2145 | \rhs \nonterm{equality-expression} \lstinline$==$ \nonterm{relational-expression} |
---|
| 2146 | \rhs \nonterm{equality-expression} \lstinline$!=$ \nonterm{relational-expression} |
---|
| 2147 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 2148 | |
---|
| 2149 | \rewriterules |
---|
| 2150 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2151 | a == b @\rewrite@ ?==?( a, b )@\use{?==?}@ |
---|
| 2152 | a != b @\rewrite@ ?!=?( a, b )@\use{?"!=?}@ |
---|
| 2153 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2154 | |
---|
| 2155 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2156 | int ?==?( int, int ), |
---|
| 2157 | ?!=?( int, int ), |
---|
| 2158 | ?==?( unsigned int, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 2159 | ?!=?( unsigned int, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 2160 | ?==?( long int, long int ), |
---|
| 2161 | ?!=?( long int, long int ), |
---|
| 2162 | ?==?( long unsigned int, long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 2163 | ?!=?( long unsigned int, long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 2164 | ?==?( long long int, long long int ), |
---|
| 2165 | ?!=?( long long int, long long int ), |
---|
| 2166 | ?==?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 2167 | ?!=?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned int ), |
---|
| 2168 | ?==?( float, float ), |
---|
| 2169 | ?!=?( float, float ), |
---|
| 2170 | ?==?( _Complex float, float ), |
---|
| 2171 | ?!=?( _Complex float, float ), |
---|
| 2172 | ?==?( float, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 2173 | ?!=?( float, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 2174 | ?==?( _Complex float, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 2175 | ?!=?( _Complex float, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 2176 | ?==?( double, double ), |
---|
| 2177 | ?!=?( double, double ), |
---|
| 2178 | ?==?( _Complex double, double ), |
---|
| 2179 | ?!=?( _Complex double, double ), |
---|
| 2180 | ?==?( double, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 2181 | ?!=?( double, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 2182 | ?==?( _Complex double, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 2183 | ?!=?( _Complex double, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 2184 | ?==?( long double, long double ), |
---|
| 2185 | ?!=?( long double, long double ), |
---|
| 2186 | ?==?( _Complex long double, long double ), |
---|
| 2187 | ?!=?( _Complex long double, long double ), |
---|
| 2188 | ?==?( long double, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 2189 | ?!=?( long double, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 2190 | ?==?( _Complex long double, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 2191 | ?!=?( _Complex long double, _Complex long double ); |
---|
| 2192 | |
---|
| 2193 | forall( dtype DT ) int |
---|
| 2194 | ?==?( const restrict volatile DT *, const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2195 | ?!=?( const restrict volatile DT *, const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2196 | ?==?( const restrict volatile DT *, const restrict volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2197 | ?!=?( const restrict volatile DT *, const restrict volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2198 | ?==?( const restrict volatile void *, const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2199 | ?!=?( const restrict volatile void *, const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2200 | ?==?( const restrict volatile DT *, forall( dtype DT2) const DT2 * ), |
---|
| 2201 | ?!=?( const restrict volatile DT *, forall( dtype DT2) const DT2 * ), |
---|
| 2202 | ?==?( forall( dtype DT2) const DT2*, const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2203 | ?!=?( forall( dtype DT2) const DT2*, const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2204 | ?==?( forall( dtype DT2) const DT2*, forall( dtype DT3) const DT3 * ), |
---|
| 2205 | ?!=?( forall( dtype DT2) const DT2*, forall( dtype DT3) const DT3 * ), |
---|
| 2206 | |
---|
| 2207 | ?==?( _Atomic const restrict volatile DT *, _Atomic const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2208 | ?!=?( _Atomic const restrict volatile DT *, _Atomic const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2209 | ?==?( _Atomic const restrict volatile DT *, const restrict volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2210 | ?!=?( _Atomic const restrict volatile DT *, const restrict volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2211 | ?==?( const restrict volatile void *, _Atomic const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2212 | ?!=?( const restrict volatile void *, _Atomic const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2213 | ?==?( _Atomic const restrict volatile DT *, forall( dtype DT2) const DT2 * ), |
---|
| 2214 | ?!=?( _Atomic const restrict volatile DT *, forall( dtype DT2) const DT2 * ), |
---|
| 2215 | ?==?( forall( dtype DT2) const DT2*, _Atomic const restrict volatile DT * ), |
---|
| 2216 | ?!=?( forall( dtype DT2) const DT2*, _Atomic const restrict volatile DT * ); |
---|
| 2217 | |
---|
| 2218 | forall( ftype FT ) int |
---|
| 2219 | ?==?( FT *, FT * ), |
---|
| 2220 | ?!=?( FT *, FT * ), |
---|
| 2221 | ?==?( FT *, forall( ftype FT2) FT2 * ), |
---|
| 2222 | ?!=?( FT *, forall( ftype FT2) FT2 * ), |
---|
| 2223 | ?==?( forall( ftype FT2) FT2*, FT * ), |
---|
| 2224 | ?!=?( forall( ftype FT2) FT2*, FT * ), |
---|
| 2225 | ?==?( forall( ftype FT2) FT2*, forall( ftype FT3) FT3 * ), |
---|
| 2226 | ?!=?( forall( ftype FT2) FT2*, forall( ftype FT3) FT3 * ); |
---|
| 2227 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2228 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ with integer conversion rank \index{integer conversion |
---|
| 2229 | rank}greater than the rank of \lstinline$int$ there exist |
---|
| 2230 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 2231 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2232 | int ?==?( X, X ), |
---|
| 2233 | ?!=?( X, X ); |
---|
| 2234 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2235 | |
---|
| 2236 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 2237 | The polymorphic equality operations come in three styles: comparisons between pointers of compatible |
---|
| 2238 | types, between pointers to \lstinline$void$ and pointers to object types or incomplete types, and |
---|
| 2239 | between the null pointer constant\index{null pointer} and pointers to any type. In the last case, a |
---|
| 2240 | special constraint rule for null pointer constant operands has been replaced by a consequence of the |
---|
| 2241 | \CFA type system. |
---|
| 2242 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 2243 | |
---|
| 2244 | \semantics |
---|
| 2245 | The interpretations of an equality expression are the interpretations of the corresponding function |
---|
| 2246 | call. |
---|
| 2247 | |
---|
| 2248 | \begin{sloppypar} |
---|
| 2249 | The result of an equality comparison between two pointers to predefined functions or predefined |
---|
| 2250 | values is implementation-defined. |
---|
| 2251 | \end{sloppypar} |
---|
| 2252 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 2253 | The implementation-defined status of equality comparisons allows implementations to use one library |
---|
| 2254 | routine to implement many predefined functions. These optimization are particularly important when |
---|
| 2255 | the predefined functions are polymorphic, as is the case for most pointer operations |
---|
| 2256 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 2257 | |
---|
| 2258 | |
---|
| 2259 | \subsection{Bitwise AND operator} |
---|
| 2260 | |
---|
| 2261 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 2262 | \lhs{AND-expression} |
---|
| 2263 | \rhs \nonterm{equality-expression} |
---|
| 2264 | \rhs \nonterm{AND-expression} \lstinline$&$ \nonterm{equality-expression} |
---|
| 2265 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 2266 | |
---|
| 2267 | \rewriterules |
---|
| 2268 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2269 | a & b @\rewrite@ ?&?( a, b )@\use{?&?}@ |
---|
| 2270 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2271 | |
---|
| 2272 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2273 | int ?&?( int, int ); |
---|
| 2274 | unsigned int ?&?( unsigned int, unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2275 | long int ?&?( long int, long int ); |
---|
| 2276 | long unsigned int ?&?( long unsigned int, long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2277 | long long int ?&?( long long int, long long int ); |
---|
| 2278 | long long unsigned int ?&?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2279 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2280 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ with integer conversion rank \index{integer conversion |
---|
| 2281 | rank}greater than the rank of \lstinline$int$ there exist |
---|
| 2282 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 2283 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2284 | int ?&?( X, X ); |
---|
| 2285 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2286 | |
---|
| 2287 | \semantics |
---|
| 2288 | The interpretations of a bitwise AND expression are the interpretations of the corresponding |
---|
| 2289 | function call. |
---|
| 2290 | |
---|
| 2291 | |
---|
| 2292 | \subsection{Bitwise exclusive OR operator} |
---|
| 2293 | |
---|
| 2294 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 2295 | \lhs{exclusive-OR-expression} |
---|
| 2296 | \rhs \nonterm{AND-expression} |
---|
| 2297 | \rhs \nonterm{exclusive-OR-expression} \lstinline$^$ \nonterm{AND-expression} |
---|
| 2298 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 2299 | |
---|
| 2300 | \rewriterules |
---|
| 2301 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2302 | a ^ b @\rewrite@ ?^?( a, b )@\use{?^?}@ |
---|
| 2303 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2304 | |
---|
| 2305 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2306 | int ?^?( int, int ); |
---|
| 2307 | unsigned int ?^?( unsigned int, unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2308 | long int ?^?( long int, long int ); |
---|
| 2309 | long unsigned int ?^?( long unsigned int, long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2310 | long long int ?^?( long long int, long long int ); |
---|
| 2311 | long long unsigned int ?^?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2312 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2313 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ with integer conversion rank \index{integer conversion |
---|
| 2314 | rank}greater than the rank of \lstinline$int$ there exist |
---|
| 2315 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 2316 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2317 | int ?^?( X, X ); |
---|
| 2318 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2319 | |
---|
| 2320 | \semantics |
---|
| 2321 | The interpretations of a bitwise exclusive OR expression are the interpretations of the |
---|
| 2322 | corresponding function call. |
---|
| 2323 | |
---|
| 2324 | |
---|
| 2325 | \subsection{Bitwise inclusive OR operator} |
---|
| 2326 | |
---|
| 2327 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 2328 | \lhs{inclusive-OR-expression} |
---|
| 2329 | \rhs \nonterm{exclusive-OR-expression} |
---|
| 2330 | \rhs \nonterm{inclusive-OR-expression} \lstinline$|$ \nonterm{exclusive-OR-expression} |
---|
| 2331 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 2332 | |
---|
| 2333 | \rewriterules\use{?"|?} |
---|
| 2334 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2335 | a | b @\rewrite@ ?|?( a, b ) |
---|
| 2336 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2337 | |
---|
| 2338 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2339 | int ?|?( int, int ); |
---|
| 2340 | unsigned int ?|?( unsigned int, unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2341 | long int ?|?( long int, long int ); |
---|
| 2342 | long unsigned int ?|?( long unsigned int, long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2343 | long long int ?|?( long long int, long long int ); |
---|
| 2344 | long long unsigned int ?|?( long long unsigned int, long long unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2345 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2346 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ with integer conversion rank \index{integer conversion |
---|
| 2347 | rank}greater than the rank of \lstinline$int$ there exist |
---|
| 2348 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 2349 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2350 | int ?|?( X, X ); |
---|
| 2351 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2352 | |
---|
| 2353 | \semantics |
---|
| 2354 | The interpretations of a bitwise inclusive OR expression are the interpretations of the |
---|
| 2355 | corresponding function call. |
---|
| 2356 | |
---|
| 2357 | |
---|
| 2358 | \subsection{Logical AND operator} |
---|
| 2359 | |
---|
| 2360 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 2361 | \lhs{logical-AND-expression} |
---|
| 2362 | \rhs \nonterm{inclusive-OR-expression} |
---|
| 2363 | \rhs \nonterm{logical-AND-expression} \lstinline$&&$ \nonterm{inclusive-OR-expression} |
---|
| 2364 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 2365 | |
---|
| 2366 | \semantics The operands of the expression ``\lstinline$a && b$'' are treated as |
---|
| 2367 | ``\lstinline$(int)((a)!=0)$'' and ``\lstinline$(int)((b)!=0)$'', which shall both be |
---|
| 2368 | unambiguous. The expression has only one interpretation, which is of type \lstinline$int$. |
---|
| 2369 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 2370 | When the operands of a logical expression are values of built-in types, and ``\lstinline$!=$'' has |
---|
| 2371 | not been redefined for those types, the compiler can optimize away the function calls. |
---|
| 2372 | |
---|
| 2373 | A common C idiom omits comparisons to \lstinline$0$ in the controlling expressions of loops and |
---|
| 2374 | \lstinline$if$ statements. For instance, the loop below iterates as long as \lstinline$rp$ points |
---|
| 2375 | at a \lstinline$Rational$ value that is non-zero. |
---|
| 2376 | |
---|
| 2377 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2378 | extern type Rational;@\use{Rational}@ |
---|
| 2379 | extern const Rational 0;@\use{0}@ |
---|
| 2380 | extern int ?!=?( Rational, Rational ); |
---|
| 2381 | Rational *rp; |
---|
| 2382 | |
---|
| 2383 | while ( rp && *rp ) { ... } |
---|
| 2384 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2385 | The logical expression calls the \lstinline$Rational$ inequality operator, passing |
---|
| 2386 | it \lstinline$*rp$ and the \lstinline$Rational 0$, and getting a 1 or 0 as a result. In |
---|
| 2387 | contrast, {\CC} would apply a programmer-defined \lstinline$Rational$-to-\lstinline$int$ |
---|
| 2388 | conversion to \lstinline$*rp$ in the equivalent situation. The conversion to \lstinline$int$ would |
---|
| 2389 | produce a general integer value, which is unfortunate, and possibly dangerous if the conversion was |
---|
| 2390 | not written with this situation in mind. |
---|
| 2391 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 2392 | |
---|
| 2393 | |
---|
| 2394 | \subsection{Logical OR operator} |
---|
| 2395 | |
---|
| 2396 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 2397 | \lhs{logical-OR-expression} |
---|
| 2398 | \rhs \nonterm{logical-AND-expression} |
---|
| 2399 | \rhs \nonterm{logical-OR-expression} \lstinline$||$ \nonterm{logical-AND-expression} |
---|
| 2400 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 2401 | |
---|
| 2402 | \semantics |
---|
| 2403 | |
---|
| 2404 | The operands of the expression ``\lstinline$a || b$'' are treated as ``\lstinline$(int)((a)!=0)$'' |
---|
| 2405 | and ``\lstinline$(int)((b})!=0)$'', which shall both be unambiguous. The expression has only one |
---|
| 2406 | interpretation, which is of type \lstinline$int$. |
---|
| 2407 | |
---|
| 2408 | |
---|
| 2409 | \subsection{Conditional operator} |
---|
| 2410 | |
---|
| 2411 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 2412 | \lhs{conditional-expression} |
---|
| 2413 | \rhs \nonterm{logical-OR-expression} |
---|
| 2414 | \rhs \nonterm{logical-OR-expression} \lstinline$?$ \nonterm{expression} |
---|
| 2415 | \lstinline$:$ \nonterm{conditional-expression} |
---|
| 2416 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 2417 | |
---|
| 2418 | \semantics |
---|
| 2419 | In the conditional expression\use{?:} ``\lstinline$a?b:c$'', if the second and |
---|
| 2420 | third operands both have an interpretation with \lstinline$void$ type, then the expression has an |
---|
| 2421 | interpretation with type \lstinline$void$, equivalent to |
---|
| 2422 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2423 | ( int)(( a)!=0) ? ( void)( b) : ( void)( c) |
---|
| 2424 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2425 | |
---|
| 2426 | If the second and third operands both have interpretations with non-\lstinline$void$ types, the |
---|
| 2427 | expression is treated as if it were the call ``\lstinline$cond((a)!=0, b, c)$'', |
---|
| 2428 | with \lstinline$cond$ declared as |
---|
| 2429 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2430 | forall( type T ) T cond( int, T, T ); |
---|
| 2431 | |
---|
| 2432 | forall( dtype D ) void |
---|
| 2433 | * cond( int, D *, void * ), |
---|
| 2434 | * cond( int, void *, D * ); |
---|
| 2435 | |
---|
| 2436 | forall( dtype D ) _atomic void |
---|
| 2437 | * cond( int, _Atomic D *, _Atomic void * ), |
---|
| 2438 | * cond( int, _Atomic void *, _Atomic D * ); |
---|
| 2439 | |
---|
| 2440 | forall( dtype D ) const void |
---|
| 2441 | * cond( int, const D *, const void * ), |
---|
| 2442 | * cond( int, const void *, const D * ); |
---|
| 2443 | |
---|
| 2444 | forall( dtype D ) restrict void |
---|
| 2445 | * cond( int, restrict D *, restrict void * ), |
---|
| 2446 | * cond( int, restrict void *, restrict D * ); |
---|
| 2447 | |
---|
| 2448 | forall( dtype D ) volatile void |
---|
| 2449 | * cond( int, volatile D *, volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2450 | * cond( int, volatile void *, volatile D * ); |
---|
| 2451 | |
---|
| 2452 | forall( dtype D ) _Atomic const void |
---|
| 2453 | * cond( int, _Atomic const D *, _Atomic const void * ), |
---|
| 2454 | * cond( int, _Atomic const void *, _Atomic const D * ); |
---|
| 2455 | |
---|
| 2456 | forall( dtype D ) _Atomic restrict void |
---|
| 2457 | * cond( int, _Atomic restrict D *, _Atomic restrict void * ), |
---|
| 2458 | * cond( int, _Atomic restrict void *, _Atomic restrict D * ); |
---|
| 2459 | |
---|
| 2460 | forall( dtype D ) _Atomic volatile void |
---|
| 2461 | * cond( int, _Atomic volatile D *, _Atomic volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2462 | * cond( int, _Atomic volatile void *, _Atomic volatile D * ); |
---|
| 2463 | |
---|
| 2464 | forall( dtype D ) const restrict void |
---|
| 2465 | * cond( int, const restrict D *, const restrict void * ), |
---|
| 2466 | * cond( int, const restrict void *, const restrict D * ); |
---|
| 2467 | |
---|
| 2468 | forall( dtype D ) const volatile void |
---|
| 2469 | * cond( int, const volatile D *, const volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2470 | * cond( int, const volatile void *, const volatile D * ); |
---|
| 2471 | |
---|
| 2472 | forall( dtype D ) restrict volatile void |
---|
| 2473 | * cond( int, restrict volatile D *, restrict volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2474 | * cond( int, restrict volatile void *, restrict volatile D * ); |
---|
| 2475 | |
---|
| 2476 | forall( dtype D ) _Atomic const restrict void |
---|
| 2477 | * cond( int, _Atomic const restrict D *, _Atomic const restrict void * ), |
---|
| 2478 | * cond( int, _Atomic const restrict void *, _Atomic const restrict D * ); |
---|
| 2479 | |
---|
| 2480 | forall( dtype D ) _Atomic const volatile void |
---|
| 2481 | * cond( int, _Atomic const volatile D *, _Atomic const volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2482 | * cond( int, _Atomic const volatile void *, _Atomic const volatile D * ); |
---|
| 2483 | |
---|
| 2484 | forall( dtype D ) _Atomic restrict volatile void |
---|
| 2485 | * cond( int, _Atomic restrict volatile D *, |
---|
| 2486 | _Atomic restrict volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2487 | * cond( int, _Atomic restrict volatile void *, |
---|
| 2488 | _Atomic restrict volatile D * ); |
---|
| 2489 | |
---|
| 2490 | forall( dtype D ) const restrict volatile void |
---|
| 2491 | * cond( int, const restrict volatile D *, |
---|
| 2492 | const restrict volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2493 | * cond( int, const restrict volatile void *, |
---|
| 2494 | const restrict volatile D * ); |
---|
| 2495 | |
---|
| 2496 | forall( dtype D ) _Atomic const restrict volatile void |
---|
| 2497 | * cond( int, _Atomic const restrict volatile D *, |
---|
| 2498 | _Atomic const restrict volatile void * ), |
---|
| 2499 | * cond( int, _Atomic const restrict volatile void *, |
---|
| 2500 | _Atomic const restrict volatile D * ); |
---|
| 2501 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2502 | |
---|
| 2503 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 2504 | The object of the above is to apply the usual arithmetic conversions\index{usual arithmetic |
---|
| 2505 | conversions} when the second and third operands have arithmetic type, and to combine the |
---|
| 2506 | qualifiers of the second and third operands if they are pointers. |
---|
| 2507 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 2508 | |
---|
| 2509 | \examples |
---|
| 2510 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2511 | #include <stdlib.h> |
---|
| 2512 | int i; |
---|
| 2513 | long l; |
---|
| 2514 | rand() ? i : l; |
---|
| 2515 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2516 | The best interpretation infers the expression's type to be \lstinline$long$ and applies the safe |
---|
| 2517 | \lstinline$int$-to-\lstinline$long$ conversion to \lstinline$i$. |
---|
| 2518 | |
---|
| 2519 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2520 | const int *cip; |
---|
| 2521 | volatile int *vip; |
---|
| 2522 | rand() ? cip : vip; |
---|
| 2523 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2524 | The expression has type \lstinline$const volatile int *$, with safe conversions applied to the second |
---|
| 2525 | and third operands to add \lstinline$volatile$ and \lstinline$const$ qualifiers, respectively. |
---|
| 2526 | |
---|
| 2527 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2528 | rand() ? cip : 0; |
---|
| 2529 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2530 | The expression has type \lstinline$const int *$, with a specialization conversion applied to |
---|
| 2531 | \lstinline$0$. |
---|
| 2532 | |
---|
| 2533 | |
---|
| 2534 | \subsection{Assignment operators} |
---|
| 2535 | |
---|
| 2536 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 2537 | \lhs{assignment-expression} |
---|
| 2538 | \rhs \nonterm{conditional-expression} |
---|
| 2539 | \rhs \nonterm{unary-expression} \nonterm{assignment-operator} |
---|
| 2540 | \nonterm{assignment-expression} |
---|
| 2541 | \lhs{assignment-operator} one of |
---|
| 2542 | \rhs \lstinline$=$\ \ \lstinline$*=$\ \ \lstinline$/=$\ \ \lstinline$%=$\ \ \lstinline$+=$\ \ \lstinline$-=$\ \ |
---|
| 2543 | \lstinline$<<=$\ \ \lstinline$>>=$\ \ \lstinline$&=$\ \ \lstinline$^=$\ \ \lstinline$|=$ |
---|
| 2544 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 2545 | |
---|
| 2546 | \rewriterules |
---|
| 2547 | Let ``\(\leftarrow\)'' be any of the assignment operators. Then |
---|
| 2548 | \use{?=?}\use{?*=?}\use{?/=?}\use{?%=?}\use{?+=?}\use{?-=?} |
---|
| 2549 | \use{?>>=?}\use{?&=?}\use{?^=?}\use{?"|=?}%use{?<<=?} |
---|
| 2550 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2551 | a @$\leftarrow$@ b @\rewrite@ ?@$\leftarrow$@?( &( a ), b ) |
---|
| 2552 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2553 | |
---|
| 2554 | \semantics |
---|
| 2555 | Each interpretation of the left operand of an assignment expression is considered separately. For |
---|
| 2556 | each interpretation that is a bit-field or is declared with the \lstinline$register$ storage class |
---|
| 2557 | specifier, the expression has one valid interpretation, with the type of the left operand. The |
---|
| 2558 | right operand is cast to that type, and the assignment expression is ambiguous if either operand is. |
---|
| 2559 | For the remaining interpretations, the expression is rewritten, and the interpretations of the |
---|
| 2560 | assignment expression are the interpretations of the corresponding function call. Finally, all |
---|
| 2561 | interpretations of the expression produced for the different interpretations of the left operand are |
---|
| 2562 | combined to produce the interpretations of the expression as a whole; where interpretations have |
---|
| 2563 | compatible result types, the best interpretations are selected in the manner described for function |
---|
| 2564 | call expressions. |
---|
| 2565 | |
---|
| 2566 | |
---|
| 2567 | \subsubsection{Simple assignment} |
---|
| 2568 | |
---|
| 2569 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2570 | _Bool |
---|
| 2571 | ?=?( volatile _Bool *, _Bool ), |
---|
| 2572 | ?=?( volatile _Bool *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2573 | ?=?( volatile _Bool *, forall( ftype F ) F * ), |
---|
| 2574 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile _Bool *, _Bool ), |
---|
| 2575 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile _Bool *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2576 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile _Bool *, forall( ftype F ) F * ); |
---|
| 2577 | char |
---|
| 2578 | ?=?( volatile char *, char ), |
---|
| 2579 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile char *, char ); |
---|
| 2580 | unsigned char |
---|
| 2581 | ?=?( volatile unsigned char *, unsigned char ), |
---|
| 2582 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile unsigned char *, unsigned char ); |
---|
| 2583 | signed char |
---|
| 2584 | ?=?( volatile signed char *, signed char ), |
---|
| 2585 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile signed char *, signed char ); |
---|
| 2586 | short int |
---|
| 2587 | ?=?( volatile short int *, short int ), |
---|
| 2588 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile short int *, short int ); |
---|
| 2589 | unsigned short |
---|
| 2590 | ?=?( volatile unsigned int *, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 2591 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile unsigned int *, unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2592 | int |
---|
| 2593 | ?=?( volatile int *, int ), |
---|
| 2594 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile int *, int ); |
---|
| 2595 | unsigned int |
---|
| 2596 | ?=?( volatile unsigned int *, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 2597 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile unsigned int *, unsigned int ); |
---|
| 2598 | long int |
---|
| 2599 | ?=?( volatile long int *, long int ), |
---|
| 2600 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile long int *, long int ); |
---|
| 2601 | unsigned long int |
---|
| 2602 | ?=?( volatile unsigned long int *, unsigned long int ), |
---|
| 2603 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile unsigned long int *, unsigned long int ); |
---|
| 2604 | long long int |
---|
| 2605 | ?=?( volatile long long int *, long long int ), |
---|
| 2606 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile long long int *, long long int ); |
---|
| 2607 | unsigned long long int |
---|
| 2608 | ?=?( volatile unsigned long long int *, unsigned long long int ), |
---|
| 2609 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile unsigned long long int *, unsigned long long int ); |
---|
| 2610 | float |
---|
| 2611 | ?=?( volatile float *, float ), |
---|
| 2612 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile float *, float ); |
---|
| 2613 | double |
---|
| 2614 | ?=?( volatile double *, double ), |
---|
| 2615 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile double *, double ); |
---|
| 2616 | long double |
---|
| 2617 | ?=?( volatile long double *, long double ), |
---|
| 2618 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile long double *, long double ); |
---|
| 2619 | _Complex float |
---|
| 2620 | ?=?( volatile float *, float ), |
---|
| 2621 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile float *, float ); |
---|
| 2622 | _Complex double |
---|
| 2623 | ?=?( volatile double *, double ), |
---|
| 2624 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile double *, double ); |
---|
| 2625 | _Complex long double |
---|
| 2626 | ?=?( volatile _Complex long double *, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 2627 | ?=?( _Atomic volatile _Complex long double *, _Atomic _Complex long double ); |
---|
| 2628 | |
---|
| 2629 | forall( ftype FT ) FT |
---|
| 2630 | * ?=?( FT * volatile *, FT * ), |
---|
| 2631 | * ?=?( FT * volatile *, forall( ftype F ) F * ); |
---|
| 2632 | |
---|
| 2633 | forall( ftype FT ) FT const |
---|
| 2634 | * ?=?( FT const * volatile *, FT const * ), |
---|
| 2635 | * ?=?( FT const * volatile *, forall( ftype F ) F * ); |
---|
| 2636 | |
---|
| 2637 | forall( ftype FT ) FT volatile |
---|
| 2638 | * ?=?( FT volatile * volatile *, FT * ), |
---|
| 2639 | * ?=?( FT volatile * volatile *, forall( ftype F ) F * ); |
---|
| 2640 | |
---|
| 2641 | forall( ftype FT ) FT const |
---|
| 2642 | * ?=?( FT const volatile * volatile *, FT const * ), |
---|
| 2643 | * ?=?( FT const volatile * volatile *, forall( ftype F ) F * ); |
---|
| 2644 | |
---|
| 2645 | forall( dtype DT ) DT |
---|
| 2646 | * ?=?( DT * restrict volatile *, DT * ), |
---|
| 2647 | * ?=?( DT * restrict volatile *, void * ), |
---|
| 2648 | * ?=?( DT * restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2649 | * ?=?( DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, DT * ), |
---|
| 2650 | * ?=?( DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, void * ), |
---|
| 2651 | * ?=?( DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2652 | |
---|
| 2653 | forall( dtype DT ) DT _Atomic |
---|
| 2654 | * ?=?( _Atomic DT * restrict volatile *, DT _Atomic * ), |
---|
| 2655 | * ?=?( _Atomic DT * restrict volatile *, void * ), |
---|
| 2656 | * ?=?( _Atomic DT * restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2657 | * ?=?( _Atomic DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, DT _Atomic * ), |
---|
| 2658 | * ?=?( _Atomic DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, void * ), |
---|
| 2659 | * ?=?( _Atomic DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2660 | |
---|
| 2661 | forall( dtype DT ) DT const |
---|
| 2662 | * ?=?( DT const * restrict volatile *, DT const * ), |
---|
| 2663 | * ?=?( DT const * restrict volatile *, void const * ), |
---|
| 2664 | * ?=?( DT const * restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2665 | * ?=?( DT const * _Atomic restrict volatile *, DT const * ), |
---|
| 2666 | * ?=?( DT const * _Atomic restrict volatile *, void const * ), |
---|
| 2667 | * ?=?( DT const * _Atomic restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2668 | |
---|
| 2669 | forall( dtype DT ) DT restrict |
---|
| 2670 | * ?=?( restrict DT * restrict volatile *, DT restrict * ), |
---|
| 2671 | * ?=?( restrict DT * restrict volatile *, void * ), |
---|
| 2672 | * ?=?( restrict DT * restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2673 | * ?=?( restrict DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, DT restrict * ), |
---|
| 2674 | * ?=?( restrict DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, void * ), |
---|
| 2675 | * ?=?( restrict DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2676 | |
---|
| 2677 | forall( dtype DT ) DT volatile |
---|
| 2678 | * ?=?( DT volatile * restrict volatile *, DT volatile * ), |
---|
| 2679 | * ?=?( DT volatile * restrict volatile *, void volatile * ), |
---|
| 2680 | * ?=?( DT volatile * restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2681 | * ?=?( DT volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, DT volatile * ), |
---|
| 2682 | * ?=?( DT volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, void volatile * ), |
---|
| 2683 | * ?=?( DT volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2684 | |
---|
| 2685 | forall( dtype DT ) DT _Atomic const |
---|
| 2686 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const * restrict volatile *, DT _Atomic const * ), |
---|
| 2687 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const * restrict volatile *, void const * ), |
---|
| 2688 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const * restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2689 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const * _Atomic restrict volatile *, DT _Atomic const * ), |
---|
| 2690 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const * _Atomic restrict volatile *, void const * ), |
---|
| 2691 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const * _Atomic restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2692 | |
---|
| 2693 | forall( dtype DT ) DT _Atomic restrict |
---|
| 2694 | * ?=?( _Atomic restrict DT * restrict volatile *, DT _Atomic restrict * ), |
---|
| 2695 | * ?=?( _Atomic restrict DT * restrict volatile *, void * ), |
---|
| 2696 | * ?=?( _Atomic restrict DT * restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2697 | * ?=?( _Atomic restrict DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, DT _Atomic restrict * ), |
---|
| 2698 | * ?=?( _Atomic restrict DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, void * ), |
---|
| 2699 | * ?=?( _Atomic restrict DT * _Atomic restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2700 | |
---|
| 2701 | forall( dtype DT ) DT _Atomic volatile |
---|
| 2702 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic volatile * restrict volatile *, DT _Atomic volatile * ), |
---|
| 2703 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic volatile * restrict volatile *, void volatile * ), |
---|
| 2704 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic volatile * restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2705 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, DT _Atomic volatile * ), |
---|
| 2706 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, void volatile * ), |
---|
| 2707 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2708 | |
---|
| 2709 | forall( dtype DT ) DT const restrict |
---|
| 2710 | * ?=?( DT const restrict * restrict volatile *, DT const restrict * ), |
---|
| 2711 | * ?=?( DT const restrict * restrict volatile *, void const * ), |
---|
| 2712 | * ?=?( DT const restrict * restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2713 | * ?=?( DT const restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, DT const restrict * ), |
---|
| 2714 | * ?=?( DT const restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, void const * ), |
---|
| 2715 | * ?=?( DT const restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2716 | |
---|
| 2717 | forall( dtype DT ) DT const volatile |
---|
| 2718 | * ?=?( DT const volatile * restrict volatile *, DT const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2719 | * ?=?( DT const volatile * restrict volatile *, void const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2720 | * ?=?( DT const volatile * restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2721 | * ?=?( DT const volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, DT const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2722 | * ?=?( DT const volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, void const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2723 | * ?=?( DT const volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2724 | |
---|
| 2725 | forall( dtype DT ) DT restrict volatile |
---|
| 2726 | * ?=?( DT restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, DT restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 2727 | * ?=?( DT restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, void volatile * ), |
---|
| 2728 | * ?=?( DT restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2729 | * ?=?( DT restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, DT restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 2730 | * ?=?( DT restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, void volatile * ), |
---|
| 2731 | * ?=?( DT restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2732 | |
---|
| 2733 | forall( dtype DT ) DT _Atomic const restrict |
---|
| 2734 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2735 | DT _Atomic const restrict * ), |
---|
| 2736 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2737 | void const * ), |
---|
| 2738 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2739 | forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2740 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2741 | DT _Atomic const restrict * ), |
---|
| 2742 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2743 | void const * ), |
---|
| 2744 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2745 | forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2746 | |
---|
| 2747 | forall( dtype DT ) DT _Atomic const volatile |
---|
| 2748 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2749 | DT _Atomic const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2750 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2751 | void const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2752 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2753 | forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2754 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2755 | DT _Atomic const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2756 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2757 | void const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2758 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2759 | forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2760 | |
---|
| 2761 | forall( dtype DT ) DT _Atomic restrict volatile |
---|
| 2762 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2763 | DT _Atomic restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 2764 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2765 | void volatile * ), |
---|
| 2766 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2767 | forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2768 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2769 | DT _Atomic restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 2770 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2771 | void volatile * ), |
---|
| 2772 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2773 | forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2774 | |
---|
| 2775 | forall( dtype DT ) DT const restrict volatile |
---|
| 2776 | * ?=?( DT const restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2777 | DT const restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 2778 | * ?=?( DT const restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2779 | void const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2780 | * ?=?( DT const restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2781 | forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2782 | * ?=?( DT const restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2783 | DT const restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 2784 | * ?=?( DT const restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2785 | void const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2786 | * ?=?( DT const restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2787 | forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2788 | |
---|
| 2789 | forall( dtype DT ) DT _Atomic const restrict volatile |
---|
| 2790 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2791 | DT _Atomic const restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 2792 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2793 | void const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2794 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2795 | forall( dtype D ) D * ), |
---|
| 2796 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2797 | DT _Atomic const restrict volatile * ), |
---|
| 2798 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2799 | void const volatile * ), |
---|
| 2800 | * ?=?( DT _Atomic const restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, |
---|
| 2801 | forall( dtype D ) D * ); |
---|
| 2802 | |
---|
| 2803 | forall( dtype DT ) void |
---|
| 2804 | * ?=?( void * restrict volatile *, DT * ); |
---|
| 2805 | |
---|
| 2806 | forall( dtype DT ) void const |
---|
| 2807 | * ?=?( void const * restrict volatile *, DT const * ); |
---|
| 2808 | |
---|
| 2809 | forall( dtype DT ) void volatile |
---|
| 2810 | * ?=?( void volatile * restrict volatile *, DT volatile * ); |
---|
| 2811 | |
---|
| 2812 | forall( dtype DT ) void const volatile |
---|
| 2813 | * ?=?( void const volatile * restrict volatile *, DT const volatile * ); |
---|
| 2814 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2815 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 2816 | The pattern of overloadings for simple assignment resembles that of pointer increment and decrement, |
---|
| 2817 | except that the polymorphic pointer assignment functions declare a \lstinline$dtype$ parameter, |
---|
| 2818 | instead of a \lstinline$type$ parameter, because the left operand may be a pointer to an incomplete |
---|
| 2819 | type. |
---|
| 2820 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 2821 | |
---|
| 2822 | For every complete structure or union type \lstinline$S$ there exist |
---|
| 2823 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 2824 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2825 | S ?=?( S volatile *, S ), ?=?( S _Atomic volatile *, S ); |
---|
| 2826 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2827 | |
---|
| 2828 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ there exist |
---|
| 2829 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 2830 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2831 | X ?=?( X volatile *, X ), ?=?( X _Atomic volatile *, X ); |
---|
| 2832 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2833 | |
---|
| 2834 | For every complete enumerated type \lstinline$E$ there exist |
---|
| 2835 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 2836 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2837 | E ?=?( E volatile *, int ), ?=?( E _Atomic volatile *, int ); |
---|
| 2838 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2839 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 2840 | The right-hand argument is \lstinline$int$ because enumeration constants have type \lstinline$int$. |
---|
| 2841 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 2842 | |
---|
| 2843 | \semantics |
---|
| 2844 | The structure assignment functions provide member-wise assignment; each non-array member and each |
---|
| 2845 | element of each array member of the right argument is assigned to the corresponding member or |
---|
| 2846 | element of the left argument using the assignment function defined for its type. All other |
---|
| 2847 | assignment functions have the same effect as the corresponding C assignment expression. |
---|
| 2848 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 2849 | Note that, by default, union assignment\index{deficiencies!union assignment} uses C semantics---that |
---|
| 2850 | is, bitwise copy---even if some of the union members have programmer-defined assignment functions. |
---|
| 2851 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 2852 | |
---|
| 2853 | |
---|
| 2854 | \subsubsection{Compound assignment} |
---|
| 2855 | |
---|
| 2856 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 2857 | forall( type T ) T |
---|
| 2858 | * ?+=?( T * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2859 | * ?-=?( T * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2860 | * ?+=?( T * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2861 | * ?-=?( T * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2862 | |
---|
| 2863 | forall( type T ) T _Atomic |
---|
| 2864 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2865 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2866 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2867 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2868 | |
---|
| 2869 | forall( type T ) T const |
---|
| 2870 | * ?+=?( T const * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2871 | * ?-=?( T const * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2872 | * ?+=?( T const * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2873 | * ?-=?( T const * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2874 | |
---|
| 2875 | forall( type T ) T restrict |
---|
| 2876 | * ?+=?( T restrict * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2877 | * ?-=?( T restrict * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2878 | * ?+=?( T restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2879 | * ?-=?( T restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2880 | |
---|
| 2881 | forall( type T ) T volatile |
---|
| 2882 | * ?+=?( T volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2883 | * ?-=?( T volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2884 | * ?+=?( T volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2885 | * ?-=?( T volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2886 | |
---|
| 2887 | forall( type T ) T _Atomic const |
---|
| 2888 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic const restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2889 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic const restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2890 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic const _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2891 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic const _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2892 | |
---|
| 2893 | forall( type T ) T _Atomic restrict |
---|
| 2894 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic restrict * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2895 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic restrict * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2896 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2897 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2898 | |
---|
| 2899 | forall( type T ) T _Atomic volatile |
---|
| 2900 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2901 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2902 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2903 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2904 | |
---|
| 2905 | forall( type T ) T const restrict |
---|
| 2906 | * ?+=?( T const restrict * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2907 | * ?-=?( T const restrict * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2908 | * ?+=?( T const restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2909 | * ?-=?( T const restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2910 | |
---|
| 2911 | forall( type T ) T const volatile |
---|
| 2912 | * ?+=?( T const volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2913 | * ?-=?( T const volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2914 | * ?+=?( T const volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2915 | * ?-=?( T const volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2916 | |
---|
| 2917 | forall( type T ) T restrict volatile |
---|
| 2918 | * ?+=?( T restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2919 | * ?-=?( T restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2920 | * ?+=?( T restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2921 | * ?-=?( T restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2922 | |
---|
| 2923 | forall( type T ) T _Atomic const restrict |
---|
| 2924 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic const restrict * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2925 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic const restrict * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2926 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic const restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2927 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic const restrict * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2928 | |
---|
| 2929 | forall( type T ) T _Atomic const volatile |
---|
| 2930 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic const volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2931 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic const volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2932 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic const volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2933 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic const volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2934 | |
---|
| 2935 | forall( type T ) T _Atomic restrict volatile |
---|
| 2936 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2937 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2938 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2939 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2940 | |
---|
| 2941 | forall( type T ) T const restrict volatile |
---|
| 2942 | * ?+=?( T const restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2943 | * ?-=?( T const restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2944 | * ?+=?( T const restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2945 | * ?-=?( T const restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2946 | |
---|
| 2947 | forall( type T ) T _Atomic const restrict volatile |
---|
| 2948 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic const restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2949 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic const restrict volatile * restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2950 | * ?+=?( T _Atomic const restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ), |
---|
| 2951 | * ?-=?( T _Atomic const restrict volatile * _Atomic restrict volatile *, ptrdiff_t ); |
---|
| 2952 | |
---|
| 2953 | _Bool |
---|
| 2954 | ?*=?( _Bool volatile *, _Bool ), |
---|
| 2955 | ?/=?( _Bool volatile *, _Bool ), |
---|
| 2956 | ?+=?( _Bool volatile *, _Bool ), |
---|
| 2957 | ?-=?( _Bool volatile *, _Bool ), |
---|
| 2958 | ?%=?( _Bool volatile *, _Bool ), |
---|
| 2959 | ?<<=?( _Bool volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 2960 | ?>>=?( _Bool volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 2961 | ?&=?( _Bool volatile *, _Bool ), |
---|
| 2962 | ?^=?( _Bool volatile *, _Bool ), |
---|
| 2963 | ?|=?( _Bool volatile *, _Bool ); |
---|
| 2964 | char |
---|
| 2965 | ?*=?( char volatile *, char ), |
---|
| 2966 | ?/=?( char volatile *, char ), |
---|
| 2967 | ?+=?( char volatile *, char ), |
---|
| 2968 | ?-=?( char volatile *, char ), |
---|
| 2969 | ?%=?( char volatile *, char ), |
---|
| 2970 | ?<<=?( char volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 2971 | ?>>=?( char volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 2972 | ?&=?( char volatile *, char ), |
---|
| 2973 | ?^=?( char volatile *, char ), |
---|
| 2974 | ?|=?( char volatile *, char ); |
---|
| 2975 | unsigned char |
---|
| 2976 | ?*=?( unsigned char volatile *, unsigned char ), |
---|
| 2977 | ?/=?( unsigned char volatile *, unsigned char ), |
---|
| 2978 | ?+=?( unsigned char volatile *, unsigned char ), |
---|
| 2979 | ?-=?( unsigned char volatile *, unsigned char ), |
---|
| 2980 | ?%=?( unsigned char volatile *, unsigned char ), |
---|
| 2981 | ?<<=?( unsigned char volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 2982 | ?>>=?( unsigned char volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 2983 | ?&=?( unsigned char volatile *, unsigned char ), |
---|
| 2984 | ?^=?( unsigned char volatile *, unsigned char ), |
---|
| 2985 | ?|=?( unsigned char volatile *, unsigned char ); |
---|
| 2986 | signed char |
---|
| 2987 | ?*=?( signed char volatile *, signed char ), |
---|
| 2988 | ?/=?( signed char volatile *, signed char ), |
---|
| 2989 | ?+=?( signed char volatile *, signed char ), |
---|
| 2990 | ?-=?( signed char volatile *, signed char ), |
---|
| 2991 | ?%=?( signed char volatile *, signed char ), |
---|
| 2992 | ?<<=?( signed char volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 2993 | ?>>=?( signed char volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 2994 | ?&=?( signed char volatile *, signed char ), |
---|
| 2995 | ?^=?( signed char volatile *, signed char ), |
---|
| 2996 | ?|=?( signed char volatile *, signed char ); |
---|
| 2997 | short int |
---|
| 2998 | ?*=?( short int volatile *, short int ), |
---|
| 2999 | ?/=?( short int volatile *, short int ), |
---|
| 3000 | ?+=?( short int volatile *, short int ), |
---|
| 3001 | ?-=?( short int volatile *, short int ), |
---|
| 3002 | ?%=?( short int volatile *, short int ), |
---|
| 3003 | ?<<=?( short int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3004 | ?>>=?( short int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3005 | ?&=?( short int volatile *, short int ), |
---|
| 3006 | ?^=?( short int volatile *, short int ), |
---|
| 3007 | ?|=?( short int volatile *, short int ); |
---|
| 3008 | unsigned short int |
---|
| 3009 | ?*=?( unsigned short int volatile *, unsigned short int ), |
---|
| 3010 | ?/=?( unsigned short int volatile *, unsigned short int ), |
---|
| 3011 | ?+=?( unsigned short int volatile *, unsigned short int ), |
---|
| 3012 | ?-=?( unsigned short int volatile *, unsigned short int ), |
---|
| 3013 | ?%=?( unsigned short int volatile *, unsigned short int ), |
---|
| 3014 | ?<<=?( unsigned short int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3015 | ?>>=?( unsigned short int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3016 | ?&=?( unsigned short int volatile *, unsigned short int ), |
---|
| 3017 | ?^=?( unsigned short int volatile *, unsigned short int ), |
---|
| 3018 | ?|=?( unsigned short int volatile *, unsigned short int ); |
---|
| 3019 | int |
---|
| 3020 | ?*=?( int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3021 | ?/=?( int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3022 | ?+=?( int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3023 | ?-=?( int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3024 | ?%=?( int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3025 | ?<<=?( int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3026 | ?>>=?( int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3027 | ?&=?( int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3028 | ?^=?( int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3029 | ?|=?( int volatile *, int ); |
---|
| 3030 | unsigned int |
---|
| 3031 | ?*=?( unsigned int volatile *, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 3032 | ?/=?( unsigned int volatile *, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 3033 | ?+=?( unsigned int volatile *, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 3034 | ?-=?( unsigned int volatile *, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 3035 | ?%=?( unsigned int volatile *, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 3036 | ?<<=?( unsigned int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3037 | ?>>=?( unsigned int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3038 | ?&=?( unsigned int volatile *, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 3039 | ?^=?( unsigned int volatile *, unsigned int ), |
---|
| 3040 | ?|=?( unsigned int volatile *, unsigned int ); |
---|
| 3041 | long int |
---|
| 3042 | ?*=?( long int volatile *, long int ), |
---|
| 3043 | ?/=?( long int volatile *, long int ), |
---|
| 3044 | ?+=?( long int volatile *, long int ), |
---|
| 3045 | ?-=?( long int volatile *, long int ), |
---|
| 3046 | ?%=?( long int volatile *, long int ), |
---|
| 3047 | ?<<=?( long int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3048 | ?>>=?( long int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3049 | ?&=?( long int volatile *, long int ), |
---|
| 3050 | ?^=?( long int volatile *, long int ), |
---|
| 3051 | ?|=?( long int volatile *, long int ); |
---|
| 3052 | unsigned long int |
---|
| 3053 | ?*=?( unsigned long int volatile *, unsigned long int ), |
---|
| 3054 | ?/=?( unsigned long int volatile *, unsigned long int ), |
---|
| 3055 | ?+=?( unsigned long int volatile *, unsigned long int ), |
---|
| 3056 | ?-=?( unsigned long int volatile *, unsigned long int ), |
---|
| 3057 | ?%=?( unsigned long int volatile *, unsigned long int ), |
---|
| 3058 | ?<<=?( unsigned long int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3059 | ?>>=?( unsigned long int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3060 | ?&=?( unsigned long int volatile *, unsigned long int ), |
---|
| 3061 | ?^=?( unsigned long int volatile *, unsigned long int ), |
---|
| 3062 | ?|=?( unsigned long int volatile *, unsigned long int ); |
---|
| 3063 | long long int |
---|
| 3064 | ?*=?( long long int volatile *, long long int ), |
---|
| 3065 | ?/=?( long long int volatile *, long long int ), |
---|
| 3066 | ?+=?( long long int volatile *, long long int ), |
---|
| 3067 | ?-=?( long long int volatile *, long long int ), |
---|
| 3068 | ?%=?( long long int volatile *, long long int ), |
---|
| 3069 | ?<<=?( long long int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3070 | ?>>=?( long long int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3071 | ?&=?( long long int volatile *, long long int ), |
---|
| 3072 | ?^=?( long long int volatile *, long long int ), |
---|
| 3073 | ?|=?( long long int volatile *, long long int ); |
---|
| 3074 | unsigned long long int |
---|
| 3075 | ?*=?( unsigned long long int volatile *, unsigned long long int ), |
---|
| 3076 | ?/=?( unsigned long long int volatile *, unsigned long long int ), |
---|
| 3077 | ?+=?( unsigned long long int volatile *, unsigned long long int ), |
---|
| 3078 | ?-=?( unsigned long long int volatile *, unsigned long long int ), |
---|
| 3079 | ?%=?( unsigned long long int volatile *, unsigned long long int ), |
---|
| 3080 | ?<<=?( unsigned long long int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3081 | ?>>=?( unsigned long long int volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3082 | ?&=?( unsigned long long int volatile *, unsigned long long int ), |
---|
| 3083 | ?^=?( unsigned long long int volatile *, unsigned long long int ), |
---|
| 3084 | ?|=?( unsigned long long int volatile *, unsigned long long int ); |
---|
| 3085 | float |
---|
| 3086 | ?*=?( float volatile *, float ), |
---|
| 3087 | ?/=?( float volatile *, float ), |
---|
| 3088 | ?+=?( float volatile *, float ), |
---|
| 3089 | ?-=?( float volatile *, float ); |
---|
| 3090 | double |
---|
| 3091 | ?*=?( double volatile *, double ), |
---|
| 3092 | ?/=?( double volatile *, double ), |
---|
| 3093 | ?+=?( double volatile *, double ), |
---|
| 3094 | ?-=?( double volatile *, double ); |
---|
| 3095 | long double |
---|
| 3096 | ?*=?( long double volatile *, long double ), |
---|
| 3097 | ?/=?( long double volatile *, long double ), |
---|
| 3098 | ?+=?( long double volatile *, long double ), |
---|
| 3099 | ?-=?( long double volatile *, long double ); |
---|
| 3100 | _Complex float |
---|
| 3101 | ?*=?( _Complex float volatile *, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 3102 | ?/=?( _Complex float volatile *, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 3103 | ?+=?( _Complex float volatile *, _Complex float ), |
---|
| 3104 | ?-=?( _Complex float volatile *, _Complex float ); |
---|
| 3105 | _Complex double |
---|
| 3106 | ?*=?( _Complex double volatile *, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 3107 | ?/=?( _Complex double volatile *, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 3108 | ?+=?( _Complex double volatile *, _Complex double ), |
---|
| 3109 | ?-=?( _Complex double volatile *, _Complex double ); |
---|
| 3110 | _Complex long double |
---|
| 3111 | ?*=?( _Complex long double volatile *, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 3112 | ?/=?( _Complex long double volatile *, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 3113 | ?+=?( _Complex long double volatile *, _Complex long double ), |
---|
| 3114 | ?-=?( _Complex long double volatile *, _Complex long double ); |
---|
| 3115 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3116 | |
---|
| 3117 | For every extended integer type \lstinline$X$ there exist |
---|
| 3118 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 3119 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3120 | ?*=?( X volatile *, X ), |
---|
| 3121 | ?/=?( X volatile *, X ), |
---|
| 3122 | ?+=?( X volatile *, X ), |
---|
| 3123 | ?-=?( X volatile *, X ), |
---|
| 3124 | ?%=?( X volatile *, X ), |
---|
| 3125 | ?<<=?( X volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3126 | ?>>=?( X volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3127 | ?&=?( X volatile *, X ), |
---|
| 3128 | ?^=?( X volatile *, X ), |
---|
| 3129 | ?|=?( X volatile *, X ); |
---|
| 3130 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3131 | |
---|
| 3132 | For every complete enumerated type \lstinline$E$ there exist |
---|
| 3133 | % Don't use predefined: keep this out of prelude.cf. |
---|
| 3134 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3135 | ?*=?( E volatile *, E ), |
---|
| 3136 | ?/=?( E volatile *, E ), |
---|
| 3137 | ?+=?( E volatile *, E ), |
---|
| 3138 | ?-=?( E volatile *, E ), |
---|
| 3139 | ?%=?( E volatile *, E ), |
---|
| 3140 | ?<<=?( E volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3141 | ?>>=?( E volatile *, int ), |
---|
| 3142 | ?&=?( E volatile *, E ), |
---|
| 3143 | ?^=?( E volatile *, E ), |
---|
| 3144 | ?|=?( E volatile *, E ); |
---|
| 3145 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3146 | |
---|
| 3147 | |
---|
| 3148 | \subsection{Comma operator} |
---|
| 3149 | |
---|
| 3150 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 3151 | \lhs{expression} |
---|
| 3152 | \rhs \nonterm{assignment-expression} |
---|
| 3153 | \rhs \nonterm{expression} \lstinline$,$ \nonterm{assignment-expression} |
---|
| 3154 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 3155 | |
---|
| 3156 | \semantics |
---|
| 3157 | In the comma expression ``\lstinline$a, b$'', the first operand is interpreted as |
---|
| 3158 | ``\lstinline$( void )(a)$'', which shall be unambiguous\index{ambiguous interpretation}. The |
---|
| 3159 | interpretations of the expression are the interpretations of the second operand. |
---|
| 3160 | |
---|
| 3161 | |
---|
| 3162 | \section{Constant expressions} |
---|
| 3163 | |
---|
| 3164 | |
---|
| 3165 | \section{Declarations} |
---|
| 3166 | |
---|
| 3167 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 3168 | \oldlhs{declaration} |
---|
| 3169 | \rhs \nonterm{type-declaration} |
---|
| 3170 | \rhs \nonterm{spec-definition} |
---|
| 3171 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 3172 | |
---|
| 3173 | \constraints |
---|
| 3174 | If an identifier has no linkage\index{no linkage}, there shall be no more than one declaration of |
---|
| 3175 | the identifier ( in a declarator or type specifier ) with compatible types in the same scope and in |
---|
| 3176 | the same name space, except that: |
---|
| 3177 | \begin{itemize} |
---|
| 3178 | \item |
---|
| 3179 | a typedef name may be redefined to denote the same type as it currently does, provided that type is |
---|
| 3180 | not a variably modified type; |
---|
| 3181 | \item |
---|
| 3182 | tags may be redeclared as specified in section 6.7.2.3 of the {\c11} standard. |
---|
| 3183 | \end{itemize} |
---|
| 3184 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3185 | This constraint adds the phrase ``with compatible types'' to the {\c11} constraint, to allow |
---|
| 3186 | overloading. |
---|
| 3187 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3188 | |
---|
| 3189 | An identifier declared by a type declaration shall not be redeclared as a parameter in a function |
---|
| 3190 | definition whose declarator includes an identifier list. |
---|
| 3191 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3192 | This restriction echos {\c11}'s ban on the redeclaration of typedef names as parameters. This |
---|
| 3193 | avoids an ambiguity between old-style function declarations and new-style function prototypes: |
---|
| 3194 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3195 | void f( Complex, // ... 3000 characters ... |
---|
| 3196 | void g( Complex, // ... 3000 characters ... |
---|
| 3197 | int Complex; { ... } |
---|
| 3198 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3199 | Without the rule, \lstinline$Complex$ would be a type in the first case, and a parameter name in the |
---|
| 3200 | second. |
---|
| 3201 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3202 | |
---|
| 3203 | |
---|
| 3204 | \setcounter{subsection}{1} |
---|
| 3205 | \subsection{Type specifiers} |
---|
| 3206 | |
---|
| 3207 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 3208 | \oldlhs{type-specifier} |
---|
| 3209 | \rhs \nonterm{forall-specifier} |
---|
| 3210 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 3211 | |
---|
| 3212 | \semantics |
---|
| 3213 | Forall specifiers are discussed in \VRef{forall}. |
---|
| 3214 | |
---|
| 3215 | |
---|
| 3216 | \subsubsection{Structure and union specifiers} |
---|
| 3217 | |
---|
| 3218 | \semantics |
---|
| 3219 | \CFA extends the {\c11} definition of \define{anonymous structure} to include structure |
---|
| 3220 | specifiers with tags, and extends the {\c11} definition of \define{anonymous union} to include union |
---|
| 3221 | specifiers with tags. |
---|
| 3222 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3223 | This extension imitates an extension in the Plan 9 C compiler \cite{Thompson90new}. |
---|
| 3224 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3225 | |
---|
| 3226 | \examples |
---|
| 3227 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3228 | struct point {@\impl{point}@ |
---|
| 3229 | int x, y; |
---|
| 3230 | }; |
---|
| 3231 | struct color_point {@\impl{color_point}@ |
---|
| 3232 | enum { RED, BLUE, GREEN } color; |
---|
| 3233 | struct point; |
---|
| 3234 | }; |
---|
| 3235 | struct color_point cp; |
---|
| 3236 | cp.x = 0; |
---|
| 3237 | cp.color = RED; |
---|
| 3238 | |
---|
| 3239 | struct literal {@\impl{literal}@ |
---|
| 3240 | enum { NUMBER, STRING } tag; |
---|
| 3241 | union { |
---|
| 3242 | double n; |
---|
| 3243 | char *s; |
---|
| 3244 | }; |
---|
| 3245 | }; |
---|
| 3246 | struct literal *next; |
---|
| 3247 | int length; |
---|
| 3248 | extern int strlen( const char * ); |
---|
| 3249 | ... |
---|
| 3250 | if ( next->tag == STRING ) length = strlen( next->s ); |
---|
| 3251 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3252 | |
---|
| 3253 | |
---|
| 3254 | \setcounter{subsubsection}{4} |
---|
| 3255 | \subsubsection{Forall specifiers}\label{forall} |
---|
| 3256 | |
---|
| 3257 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 3258 | \lhs{forall-specifier} |
---|
| 3259 | \rhs \lstinline$forall$ \lstinline$($ \nonterm{type-parameter-list} \lstinline$)$ |
---|
| 3260 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 3261 | |
---|
| 3262 | \constraints |
---|
| 3263 | If the \nonterm{declaration-specifiers} of a declaration that contains a \nonterm{forall-specifier} |
---|
| 3264 | declares a structure or union tag, the types of the members of the structure or union shall not use |
---|
| 3265 | any of the type identifiers declared by the \nonterm{type-parameter-list}. |
---|
| 3266 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3267 | This sort of declaration is illegal because the scope of the type identifiers ends at the end of the |
---|
| 3268 | declaration, but the scope of the structure tag does not. |
---|
| 3269 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3270 | forall( type T ) struct Pair { T a, b; } mkPair( T, T ); // illegal |
---|
| 3271 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3272 | If an instance of \lstinline$struct Pair$ was declared later in the current scope, what would the |
---|
| 3273 | members' type be? |
---|
| 3274 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3275 | |
---|
| 3276 | \semantics |
---|
| 3277 | The \nonterm{type-parameter-list}s and assertions of the \nonterm{forall-specifier}s declare type |
---|
| 3278 | identifiers, function and object identifiers with no linkage\index{no linkage}. |
---|
| 3279 | |
---|
| 3280 | If, in the declaration ``\lstinline$T D1$'', \lstinline$T$ contains \nonterm{forall-specifier}s and |
---|
| 3281 | \lstinline$D1$ has the form |
---|
| 3282 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3283 | D( @\normalsize\nonterm{parameter-type-list}@ ) |
---|
| 3284 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3285 | then a type identifier declared by one of the \nonterm{forall-specifier}s is an \define{inferred |
---|
| 3286 | parameter} of the function declarator if and only if it is not an inferred parameter of a function |
---|
| 3287 | declarator in \lstinline$D$, and it is used in the type of a parameter in the following |
---|
| 3288 | \nonterm{type-parameter-list} or it and an inferred parameter are used as arguments of a |
---|
| 3289 | specification\index{specification} in one of the \nonterm{forall-specifier}s. The identifiers |
---|
| 3290 | declared by assertions that use an inferred parameter of a function declarator are assertion |
---|
| 3291 | parameters\index{assertion parameters} of that function declarator. |
---|
| 3292 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3293 | Since every inferred parameter is used by some parameter, inference can be understood as a single |
---|
| 3294 | bottom-up pass over the expression tree, that only needs to apply local reasoning at each node. |
---|
| 3295 | |
---|
| 3296 | If this restriction were lifted, it would be possible to write |
---|
| 3297 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3298 | forall( type T ) T * alloc( void );@\use{alloc}@ |
---|
| 3299 | int *p = alloc(); |
---|
| 3300 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3301 | Here \lstinline$alloc()$ would receive \lstinline$int$ as an inferred argument, and return an |
---|
| 3302 | \lstinline$int *$. In general, if a call to \lstinline$alloc()$ is a subexpression of an expression |
---|
| 3303 | involving polymorphic functions and overloaded identifiers, there could be considerable distance |
---|
| 3304 | between the call and the subexpression that causes \lstinline$T$ to be bound. |
---|
| 3305 | |
---|
| 3306 | With the current restriction, \lstinline$alloc()$ must be given an argument that determines |
---|
| 3307 | \lstinline$T$: |
---|
| 3308 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3309 | forall( type T ) T * alloc( T initial_value );@\use{alloc}@ |
---|
| 3310 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3311 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3312 | |
---|
| 3313 | If a function declarator is part of a function definition, its inferred parameters and assertion |
---|
| 3314 | parameters have block scope\index{block scope}; otherwise, identifiers declared by assertions have a |
---|
| 3315 | \define{declaration scope}, which terminates at the end of the \nonterm{declaration}. |
---|
| 3316 | |
---|
| 3317 | A function type that has at least one inferred parameter is a \define{polymorphic function} type. |
---|
| 3318 | Function types with no inferred parameters are \define{monomorphic function} types. One function |
---|
| 3319 | type is \define{less polymorphic} than another if it has fewer inferred parameters, or if it has the |
---|
| 3320 | same number of inferred parameters and fewer of its explicit parameters have types that depend on an |
---|
| 3321 | inferred parameter. |
---|
| 3322 | |
---|
| 3323 | The names of inferred parameters and the order of identifiers in forall specifiers are not relevant |
---|
| 3324 | to polymorphic function type compatibility. Let $f$ and $g$ be two polymorphic function types with |
---|
| 3325 | the same number of inferred parameters, and let $f_i$ and $g_i$ be the inferred parameters of $f$ |
---|
| 3326 | and $g$ in their order of occurance in the function types' \nonterm{parameter-type-list}s. Let $f'$ |
---|
| 3327 | be $f$ with every occurrence of $f_i$ replaced by $g_i$, for all $i$. Then $f$ and $g$ are |
---|
| 3328 | compatible types\index{compatible type} if $f'$'s and $g$'s return types and parameter lists are |
---|
| 3329 | compatible, and if for every assertion parameter of $f'$ there is an assertion parameter in $g$ with |
---|
| 3330 | the same identifier and compatible type, and vice versa. |
---|
| 3331 | |
---|
| 3332 | \examples |
---|
| 3333 | Consider these analogous monomorphic and polymorphic declarations. |
---|
| 3334 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3335 | int fi( int ); |
---|
| 3336 | forall( type T ) T fT( T ); |
---|
| 3337 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3338 | \lstinline$fi()$ takes an \lstinline$int$ and returns an \lstinline$int$. \lstinline$fT()$ takes a |
---|
| 3339 | \lstinline$T$ and returns a \lstinline$T$, for any type \lstinline$T$. |
---|
| 3340 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3341 | int (*pfi )( int ) = fi; |
---|
| 3342 | forall( type T ) T (*pfT )( T ) = fT; |
---|
| 3343 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3344 | \lstinline$pfi$ and \lstinline$pfT$ are pointers to functions. \lstinline$pfT$ is not |
---|
| 3345 | polymorphic, but the function it points at is. |
---|
| 3346 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3347 | int (*fvpfi( void ))( int ) { |
---|
| 3348 | return pfi; |
---|
| 3349 | } |
---|
| 3350 | forall( type T ) T (*fvpfT( void ))( T ) { |
---|
| 3351 | return pfT; |
---|
| 3352 | } |
---|
| 3353 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3354 | \lstinline$fvpfi()$ and \lstinline$fvpfT()$ are functions taking no arguments and returning pointers |
---|
| 3355 | to functions. \lstinline$fvpfT()$ is monomorphic, but the function that its return value points |
---|
| 3356 | at is polymorphic. |
---|
| 3357 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3358 | forall( type T ) int ( *fTpfi( T ) )( int ); |
---|
| 3359 | forall( type T ) T ( *fTpfT( T ) )( T ); |
---|
| 3360 | forall( type T, type U ) U ( *fTpfU( T ) )( U ); |
---|
| 3361 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3362 | \lstinline$fTpfi()$ is a polymorphic function that returns a pointer to a monomorphic function |
---|
| 3363 | taking an integer and returning an integer. It could return \lstinline$pfi$. \lstinline$fTpfT()$ |
---|
| 3364 | is subtle: it is a polymorphic function returning a \emph{monomorphic} function taking and returning |
---|
| 3365 | \lstinline$T$, where \lstinline$T$ is an inferred parameter of \lstinline$fTpfT()$. For instance, |
---|
| 3366 | in the expression ``\lstinline$fTpfT(17)$'', \lstinline$T$ is inferred to be \lstinline$int$, and |
---|
| 3367 | the returned value would have type \lstinline$int ( * )( int )$. ``\lstinline$fTpfT(17)(13)$'' and |
---|
| 3368 | ``\lstinline$fTpfT("yes")("no")$'' are legal, but ``\lstinline$fTpfT(17)("no")$'' is illegal. |
---|
| 3369 | \lstinline$fTpfU()$ is polymorphic ( in type \lstinline$T$), and returns a pointer to a function that |
---|
| 3370 | is polymorphic ( in type \lstinline$U$). ``\lstinline$f5(17)("no")$'' is a legal expression of type |
---|
| 3371 | \lstinline$char *$. |
---|
| 3372 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3373 | forall( type T, type U, type V ) U * f( T *, U, V * const ); |
---|
| 3374 | forall( type U, type V, type W ) U * g( V *, U, W * const ); |
---|
| 3375 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3376 | The functions \lstinline$f()$ and \lstinline$g()$ have compatible types. Let \(f\) and \(g\) be |
---|
| 3377 | their types; then \(f_1\) = \lstinline$T$, \(f_2\) = \lstinline$U$, \(f_3\) = \lstinline$V$, \(g_1\) |
---|
| 3378 | = \lstinline$V$, \(g_2\) = \lstinline$U$, and \(g_3\) = \lstinline$W$. Replacing every \(f_i\) |
---|
| 3379 | by \(g_i\) in \(f\) gives |
---|
| 3380 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3381 | forall( type V, type U, type W ) U * f( V *, U, W * const ); |
---|
| 3382 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3383 | which has a return type and parameter list that is compatible with \(g\). |
---|
| 3384 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3385 | The word ``\lstinline$type$'' in a forall specifier is redundant at the moment, but I want to leave |
---|
| 3386 | room for inferred parameters of ordinary types in case parameterized types get added one day. |
---|
| 3387 | |
---|
| 3388 | Even without parameterized types, I might try to allow |
---|
| 3389 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3390 | forall( int n ) int sum( int vector[n] ); |
---|
| 3391 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3392 | but C currently rewrites array parameters as pointer parameters, so the effects of such a change |
---|
| 3393 | require more thought. |
---|
| 3394 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3395 | |
---|
| 3396 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3397 | A polymorphic declaration must do two things: it must introduce type parameters, and it must apply |
---|
| 3398 | assertions to those types. Adding this to existing C declaration syntax and semantics was delicate, |
---|
| 3399 | and not entirely successful. |
---|
| 3400 | |
---|
| 3401 | C depends on declaration-before-use, so a forall specifier must introduce type names before they can |
---|
| 3402 | be used in the declaration specifiers. This could be done by making the forall specifier part of |
---|
| 3403 | the declaration specifiers, or by making it a new introductory clause of declarations. |
---|
| 3404 | |
---|
| 3405 | Assertions are also part of polymorphic function types, because it must be clear which functions |
---|
| 3406 | have access to the assertion parameters declared by the assertions. All attempts to put assertions |
---|
| 3407 | inside an introductory clause produced complex semantics and confusing code. Building them into the |
---|
| 3408 | declaration specifiers could be done by placing them in the function's parameter list, or in a |
---|
| 3409 | forall specifier that is a declaration specifier. Assertions are also used with type parameters of |
---|
| 3410 | specifications, and by type declarations. For consistency's sake it seems best to attach assertions |
---|
| 3411 | to the type declarations in forall specifiers, which means that forall specifiers must be |
---|
| 3412 | declaration specifiers. |
---|
| 3413 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3414 | %HERE |
---|
| 3415 | |
---|
| 3416 | |
---|
| 3417 | \subsection{Type qualifiers} |
---|
| 3418 | |
---|
| 3419 | \CFA defines a new type qualifier \lstinline$lvalue$\impl{lvalue}\index{lvalue}. |
---|
| 3420 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 3421 | \oldlhs{type-qualifier} |
---|
| 3422 | \rhs \lstinline$lvalue$ |
---|
| 3423 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 3424 | |
---|
| 3425 | \constraints |
---|
| 3426 | \lstinline$restrict$\index{register@{\lstinline$restrict$}} Types other than type parameters and |
---|
| 3427 | pointer types whose referenced type is an object type shall not be restrict-qualified. |
---|
| 3428 | |
---|
| 3429 | \semantics |
---|
| 3430 | An object's type may be a restrict-qualified type parameter. \lstinline$restrict$ does not |
---|
| 3431 | establish any special semantics in that case. |
---|
| 3432 | |
---|
| 3433 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3434 | \CFA loosens the constraint on the restrict qualifier so that restrict-qualified pointers may be |
---|
| 3435 | passed to polymorphic functions. |
---|
| 3436 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3437 | |
---|
| 3438 | \lstinline$lvalue$ may be used to qualify the return type of a function type. Let \lstinline$T$ be |
---|
| 3439 | an unqualified version of a type; then the result of calling a function with return type |
---|
| 3440 | \lstinline$lvalue T$ is a modifiable lvalue\index{modifiable lvalue} of type \lstinline$T$. |
---|
| 3441 | \lstinline$const$\use{const} and \lstinline$volatile$\use{volatile} qualifiers may also be added to |
---|
| 3442 | indicate that the function result is a constant or volatile lvalue. |
---|
| 3443 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3444 | The \lstinline$const$ and \lstinline$volatile$ qualifiers can only be sensibly used to qualify the |
---|
| 3445 | return type of a function if the \lstinline$lvalue$ qualifier is also used. |
---|
| 3446 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3447 | |
---|
| 3448 | An {lvalue}-qualified type may be used in a cast expression\index{cast expression} if the operand is |
---|
| 3449 | an lvalue; the result of the expression is an lvalue. |
---|
| 3450 | |
---|
| 3451 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3452 | \lstinline$lvalue$ provides some of the functionality of {\CC}'s ``\lstinline$T&$'' ( reference to |
---|
| 3453 | object of type \lstinline$T$) type. Reference types have four uses in {\CC}. |
---|
| 3454 | \begin{itemize} |
---|
| 3455 | \item |
---|
| 3456 | They are necessary for user-defined operators that return lvalues, such as ``subscript'' and |
---|
| 3457 | ``dereference''. |
---|
| 3458 | |
---|
| 3459 | \item |
---|
| 3460 | A reference can be used to define an alias for a complicated lvalue expression, as a way of getting |
---|
| 3461 | some of the functionality of the Pascal \lstinline$with$ statement. The following {\CC} code gives |
---|
| 3462 | an example. |
---|
| 3463 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3464 | { |
---|
| 3465 | char &code = long_name.some_field[i].data->code; |
---|
| 3466 | code = toupper( code ); |
---|
| 3467 | } |
---|
| 3468 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3469 | This is not very useful. |
---|
| 3470 | |
---|
| 3471 | \item |
---|
| 3472 | A reference parameter can be used to allow a function to modify an argument without forcing the |
---|
| 3473 | caller to pass the address of the argument. This is most useful for user-defined assignment |
---|
| 3474 | operators. In {\CC}, plain assignment is done by a function called ``\lstinline$operator=$'', and |
---|
| 3475 | the two expressions |
---|
| 3476 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3477 | a = b; |
---|
| 3478 | operator=( a, b ); |
---|
| 3479 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3480 | are equivalent. If \lstinline$a$ and \lstinline$b$ are of type \lstinline$T$, then the first |
---|
| 3481 | parameter of \lstinline$operator=$ must have type ``\lstinline$T&$''. It cannot have type |
---|
| 3482 | \lstinline$T$, because then assignment couldn't alter the variable, and it can't have type |
---|
| 3483 | ``\lstinline$T *$'', because the assignment would have to be written ``\lstinline$&a = b;$''. |
---|
| 3484 | |
---|
| 3485 | In the case of user-defined operators, this could just as well be handled by using pointer types and |
---|
| 3486 | by changing the rewrite rules so that ``\lstinline$a = b;$'' is equivalent to |
---|
| 3487 | ``\lstinline$operator=(&( a), b )$''. Reference parameters of ``normal'' functions are Bad Things, |
---|
| 3488 | because they remove a useful property of C function calls: an argument can only be modified by a |
---|
| 3489 | function if it is preceded by ``\lstinline$&$''. |
---|
| 3490 | |
---|
| 3491 | \item |
---|
| 3492 | References to const-qualified\index{const-qualified} types can be used instead of value parameters. |
---|
| 3493 | Given the {\CC} function call ``\lstinline$fiddle( a_thing )$'', where the type of |
---|
| 3494 | \lstinline$a_thing$ is \lstinline$Thing$, the type of \lstinline$fiddle$ could be either of |
---|
| 3495 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3496 | void fiddle( Thing ); |
---|
| 3497 | void fiddle( const Thing & ); |
---|
| 3498 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3499 | If the second form is used, then constructors and destructors are not invoked to create a temporary |
---|
| 3500 | variable at the call site ( and it is bad style for the caller to make any assumptions about such |
---|
| 3501 | things), and within \lstinline$fiddle$ the parameter is subject to the usual problems caused by |
---|
| 3502 | aliases. The reference form might be chosen for efficiency's sake if \lstinline$Thing$s are too |
---|
| 3503 | large or their constructors or destructors are too expensive. An implementation may switch between |
---|
| 3504 | them without causing trouble for well-behaved clients. This leaves the implementor to define ``too |
---|
| 3505 | large'' and ``too expensive''. |
---|
| 3506 | |
---|
| 3507 | I propose to push this job onto the compiler by allowing it to implement |
---|
| 3508 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3509 | void fiddle( const volatile Thing ); |
---|
| 3510 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3511 | with call-by-reference. Since it knows all about the size of \lstinline$Thing$s and the parameter |
---|
| 3512 | passing mechanism, it should be able to come up with a better definition of ``too large'', and may |
---|
| 3513 | be able to make a good guess at ``too expensive''. |
---|
| 3514 | \end{itemize} |
---|
| 3515 | |
---|
| 3516 | In summary, since references are only really necessary for returning lvalues, I'll only provide |
---|
| 3517 | lvalue functions. |
---|
| 3518 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3519 | |
---|
| 3520 | |
---|
| 3521 | \setcounter{subsection}{8} |
---|
| 3522 | \subsection{Initialization} |
---|
| 3523 | |
---|
| 3524 | An expression that is used as an \nonterm{initializer} is treated as being cast to the type of the |
---|
| 3525 | object being initialized. An expression used in an \nonterm{initializer-list} is treated as being |
---|
| 3526 | cast to the type of the aggregate member that it initializes. In either case the cast must have a |
---|
| 3527 | single unambiguous interpretation\index{interpretations}. |
---|
| 3528 | |
---|
| 3529 | |
---|
| 3530 | \setcounter{subsection}{10} |
---|
| 3531 | \subsection{Specification definitions} |
---|
| 3532 | |
---|
| 3533 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 3534 | \lhs{spec-definition} |
---|
| 3535 | \rhs \lstinline$spec$ \nonterm{identifier} |
---|
| 3536 | \lstinline$($ \nonterm{type-parameter-list} \lstinline$)$ |
---|
| 3537 | \lstinline${$ \nonterm{spec-declaration-list}\opt \lstinline$}$ |
---|
| 3538 | \lhs{spec-declaration-list} |
---|
| 3539 | \rhs \nonterm{spec-declaration} \lstinline$;$ |
---|
| 3540 | \rhs \nonterm{spec-declaration-list} \nonterm{spec-declaration} \lstinline$;$ |
---|
| 3541 | \lhs{spec-declaration} |
---|
| 3542 | \rhs \nonterm{specifier-qualifier-list} \nonterm{declarator-list} |
---|
| 3543 | \lhs{declarator-list} |
---|
| 3544 | \rhs \nonterm{declarator} |
---|
| 3545 | \rhs \nonterm{declarator-list} \lstinline$,$ \nonterm{declarator} |
---|
| 3546 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 3547 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3548 | The declarations allowed in a specification are much the same as those allowed in a structure, |
---|
| 3549 | except that bit fields are not allowed, and incomplete types\index{incomplete types} and function |
---|
| 3550 | types are allowed. |
---|
| 3551 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3552 | |
---|
| 3553 | \semantics |
---|
| 3554 | A \define{specification definition} defines a name for a \define{specification}: a parameterized |
---|
| 3555 | collection of object and function declarations. |
---|
| 3556 | |
---|
| 3557 | The declarations in a specification consist of the declarations in the |
---|
| 3558 | \nonterm{spec-declaration-list} and declarations produced by any assertions in the |
---|
| 3559 | \nonterm{spec-parameter-list}. If the collection contains two declarations that declare the same |
---|
| 3560 | identifier and have compatible types, they are combined into one declaration with the composite type |
---|
| 3561 | constructed from the two types. |
---|
| 3562 | |
---|
| 3563 | |
---|
| 3564 | \subsubsection{Assertions} |
---|
| 3565 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 3566 | \lhs{assertion-list} |
---|
| 3567 | \rhs \nonterm{assertion} |
---|
| 3568 | \rhs \nonterm{assertion-list} \nonterm{assertion} |
---|
| 3569 | \lhs{assertion} |
---|
| 3570 | \rhs \lstinline$|$ \nonterm{identifier} \lstinline$($ \nonterm{type-name-list} \lstinline$)$ |
---|
| 3571 | \rhs \lstinline$|$ \nonterm{spec-declaration} |
---|
| 3572 | \lhs{type-name-list} |
---|
| 3573 | \rhs \nonterm{type-name} |
---|
| 3574 | \rhs \nonterm{type-name-list} \lstinline$,$ \nonterm{type-name} |
---|
| 3575 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 3576 | |
---|
| 3577 | \constraints |
---|
| 3578 | The \nonterm{identifier} in an assertion that is not a \nonterm{spec-declaration} shall be the name |
---|
| 3579 | of a specification. The \nonterm{type-name-list} shall contain one \nonterm{type-name} argument for |
---|
| 3580 | each \nonterm{type-parameter} in that specification's \nonterm{spec-parameter-list}. If the |
---|
| 3581 | \nonterm{type-parameter} uses type-class \lstinline$type$\use{type}, the argument shall be the type |
---|
| 3582 | name of an object type\index{object types}; if it uses \lstinline$dtype$, the argument shall be the |
---|
| 3583 | type name of an object type or an incomplete type\index{incomplete types}; and if it uses |
---|
| 3584 | \lstinline$ftype$, the argument shall be the type name of a function type\index{function types}. |
---|
| 3585 | |
---|
| 3586 | \semantics |
---|
| 3587 | An \define{assertion} is a declaration of a collection of objects and functions, called |
---|
| 3588 | \define{assertion parameters}. |
---|
| 3589 | |
---|
| 3590 | The assertion parameters produced by an assertion that applies the name of a specification to type |
---|
| 3591 | arguments are found by taking the declarations specified in the specification and treating each of |
---|
| 3592 | the specification's parameters as a synonym for the corresponding \nonterm{type-name} argument. |
---|
| 3593 | |
---|
| 3594 | The collection of assertion parameters produced by the \nonterm{assertion-list} are found by |
---|
| 3595 | combining the declarations produced by each assertion. If the collection contains two declarations |
---|
| 3596 | that declare the same identifier and have compatible types, they are combined into one declaration |
---|
| 3597 | with the composite type\index{composite type} constructed from the two types. |
---|
| 3598 | |
---|
| 3599 | \examples |
---|
| 3600 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3601 | forall( type T | T ?*?( T, T ))@\use{?*?}@ |
---|
| 3602 | T square( T val ) {@\impl{square}@ |
---|
| 3603 | return val + val; |
---|
| 3604 | } |
---|
| 3605 | |
---|
| 3606 | context summable( type T ) {@\impl{summable}@ |
---|
| 3607 | T ?+=?( T *, T );@\use{?+=?}@ |
---|
| 3608 | const T 0;@\use{0}@ |
---|
| 3609 | }; |
---|
| 3610 | context list_of( type List, type Element ) {@\impl{list_of}@ |
---|
| 3611 | Element car( List ); |
---|
| 3612 | List cdr( List ); |
---|
| 3613 | List cons( Element, List ); |
---|
| 3614 | List nil; |
---|
| 3615 | int is_nil( List ); |
---|
| 3616 | }; |
---|
| 3617 | context sum_list( type List, type Element | summable( Element ) | list_of( List, Element ) ) {}; |
---|
| 3618 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3619 | \lstinline$sum_list$ contains seven declarations, which describe a list whose elements can be added |
---|
| 3620 | up. The assertion ``\lstinline$|sum_list( i_list, int )$''\use{sum_list} produces the assertion |
---|
| 3621 | parameters |
---|
| 3622 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3623 | int ?+=?( int *, int ); |
---|
| 3624 | const int 0; |
---|
| 3625 | int car( i_list ); |
---|
| 3626 | i_list cdr( i_list ); |
---|
| 3627 | i_list cons( int, i_list ); |
---|
| 3628 | i_list nil; |
---|
| 3629 | int is_nil; |
---|
| 3630 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3631 | |
---|
| 3632 | \subsection{Type declarations} |
---|
| 3633 | \begin{syntax} |
---|
| 3634 | \lhs{type-parameter-list} |
---|
| 3635 | \rhs \nonterm{type-parameter} |
---|
| 3636 | \rhs \nonterm{type-parameter-list} \lstinline$,$ \nonterm{type-parameter} |
---|
| 3637 | \lhs{type-parameter} |
---|
| 3638 | \rhs \nonterm{type-class} \nonterm{identifier} \nonterm{assertion-list}\opt |
---|
| 3639 | \lhs{type-class} |
---|
| 3640 | \rhs \lstinline$type$ |
---|
| 3641 | \rhs \lstinline$dtype$ |
---|
| 3642 | \rhs \lstinline$ftype$ |
---|
| 3643 | \lhs{type-declaration} |
---|
| 3644 | \rhs \nonterm{storage-class-specifier}\opt \lstinline$type$ \nonterm{type-declarator-list} \verb|;| |
---|
| 3645 | \lhs{type-declarator-list} |
---|
| 3646 | \rhs \nonterm{type-declarator} |
---|
| 3647 | \rhs \nonterm{type-declarator-list} \lstinline$,$ \nonterm{type-declarator} |
---|
| 3648 | \lhs{type-declarator} |
---|
| 3649 | \rhs \nonterm{identifier} \nonterm{assertion-list}\opt \lstinline$=$ \nonterm{type-name} |
---|
| 3650 | \rhs \nonterm{identifier} \nonterm{assertion-list}\opt |
---|
| 3651 | \end{syntax} |
---|
| 3652 | |
---|
| 3653 | \constraints |
---|
| 3654 | If a type declaration has block scope, and the declared identifier has external or internal linkage, |
---|
| 3655 | the declaration shall have no initializer for the identifier. |
---|
| 3656 | |
---|
| 3657 | \semantics |
---|
| 3658 | A \nonterm{type-parameter} or a \nonterm{type-declarator} declares an identifier to be a type |
---|
| 3659 | name\index{type names} for a type incompatible with all other types. |
---|
| 3660 | |
---|
| 3661 | An identifier declared by a \nonterm{type-parameter} has no linkage\index{no linkage}. Identifiers |
---|
| 3662 | declared with type-class \lstinline$type$\use{type} are object types\index{object types}; those |
---|
| 3663 | declared with type-class \lstinline$dtype$\use{dtype} are incomplete types\index{incomplete types}; |
---|
| 3664 | and those declared with type-class \lstinline$ftype$\use{ftype} are function types\index{function |
---|
| 3665 | types}. The identifier has block scope\index{block scope} that terminates at the end of the |
---|
| 3666 | \nonterm{spec-declaration-list} or polymorphic function that contains the \nonterm{type-parameter}. |
---|
| 3667 | |
---|
| 3668 | A \nonterm{type-declarator} with an initializer\index{initializer} is a \define{type definition}. |
---|
| 3669 | The declared identifier is an incomplete type\index{incomplete types} within the initializer, and an |
---|
| 3670 | object type\index{object types} after the end of the initializer. The type in the initializer is |
---|
| 3671 | called the \define{implementation type}. Within the scope of the declaration, implicit |
---|
| 3672 | conversions\index{implicit conversions} can be performed between the defined type and the |
---|
| 3673 | implementation type, and between pointers to the defined type and pointers to the implementation |
---|
| 3674 | type. |
---|
| 3675 | |
---|
| 3676 | A type declaration without an initializer\index{initializer} and without a storage-class |
---|
| 3677 | specifier\index{storage-class specifiers} or with storage-class specifier |
---|
| 3678 | \lstinline$static$\use{static} defines an incomplete type\index{incomplete types}. If a translation |
---|
| 3679 | unit\index{translation unit} or block \index{block} contains one or more such declarations for an |
---|
| 3680 | identifier, it must contain exactly one definition of the identifier ( but not in an enclosed block, |
---|
| 3681 | which would define a new type known only within that block). |
---|
| 3682 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3683 | Incomplete type declarations allow compact mutually-recursive types. |
---|
| 3684 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3685 | type t1; // Incomplete type declaration. |
---|
| 3686 | type t2 = struct { t1 * p; ... }; |
---|
| 3687 | type t1 = struct { t2 * p; ... }; |
---|
| 3688 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3689 | Without them, mutual recursion could be handled by declaring mutually recursive structures, then |
---|
| 3690 | initializing the types to those structures. |
---|
| 3691 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3692 | struct s1; |
---|
| 3693 | type t2 = struct s2 { struct s1 * p; ... }; |
---|
| 3694 | type t1 = struct s1 { struct s2 * p; ... }; |
---|
| 3695 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3696 | This introduces extra names, and may force the programmer to cast between the types and their |
---|
| 3697 | implementations. |
---|
| 3698 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3699 | |
---|
| 3700 | A type declaration without an initializer and with storage-class specifier \index{storage-class |
---|
| 3701 | specifiers} \lstinline$extern$\use{extern} is an \define{opaque type declaration}. Opaque types |
---|
| 3702 | are object types\index{object types}. An opaque type is not a \nonterm{constant-expression}; |
---|
| 3703 | neither is a structure or union that has a member whose type is not a \nonterm{constant-expression}. |
---|
| 3704 | Every other object type\index{object types} is a \nonterm{constant-expression}. Objects with static |
---|
| 3705 | storage duration shall be declared with a type that is a \nonterm{constant-expression}. |
---|
| 3706 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3707 | Type declarations can declare identifiers with external linkage, whereas typedef declarations |
---|
| 3708 | declare identifiers that only exist within a translation unit. These opaque types can be used in |
---|
| 3709 | declarations, but the implementation of the type is not visible. |
---|
| 3710 | |
---|
| 3711 | Static objects can not have opaque types because space for them would have to be allocated at |
---|
| 3712 | program start-up. This is a deficiency\index{deficiencies!static opaque objects}, but I don't want |
---|
| 3713 | to deal with ``module initialization'' code just now. |
---|
| 3714 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3715 | |
---|
| 3716 | An incomplete type\index{incomplete types} which is not a qualified version\index{qualified type} of |
---|
| 3717 | a type is a value of type-class\index{type-class} \lstinline$dtype$. An object type\index{object |
---|
| 3718 | types} which is not a qualified version of a type is a value of type-classes \lstinline$type$ and |
---|
| 3719 | \lstinline$dtype$. A function type\index{function types} is a value of type-class |
---|
| 3720 | \lstinline$ftype$. |
---|
| 3721 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3722 | Syntactically, a type value is a \nonterm{type-name}, which is a declaration for an object which |
---|
| 3723 | omits the identifier being declared. |
---|
| 3724 | |
---|
| 3725 | Object types are precisely the types that can be instantiated. Type qualifiers are not included in |
---|
| 3726 | type values because the compiler needs the information they provide at compile time to detect |
---|
| 3727 | illegal statements or to produce efficient machine instructions. For instance, the code that a |
---|
| 3728 | compiler must generate to manipulate an object that has volatile-qualified type may be different |
---|
| 3729 | from the code to manipulate an ordinary object. |
---|
| 3730 | |
---|
| 3731 | Type qualifiers are a weak point of C's type system. Consider the standard library function |
---|
| 3732 | \lstinline$strchr()$ which, given a string and a character, returns a pointer to the first |
---|
| 3733 | occurrence of the character in the string. |
---|
| 3734 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3735 | char *strchr( const char *s, int c ) {@\impl{strchr}@ |
---|
| 3736 | char real_c = c; // done because c was declared as int. |
---|
| 3737 | for ( ; *s != real_c; s++ ) |
---|
| 3738 | if ( *s == '\0' ) return NULL; |
---|
| 3739 | return ( char * )s; |
---|
| 3740 | } |
---|
| 3741 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3742 | The parameter \lstinline$s$ must be \lstinline$const char *$, because \lstinline$strchr()$ might be |
---|
| 3743 | used to search a constant string, but the return type must be \lstinline$char *$, because the result |
---|
| 3744 | might be used to modify a non-constant string. Hence the body must perform a cast, and ( even worse) |
---|
| 3745 | \lstinline$strchr()$ provides a type-safe way to attempt to modify constant strings. What is needed |
---|
| 3746 | is some way to say that \lstinline$s$'s type might contain qualifiers, and the result type has |
---|
| 3747 | exactly the same qualifiers. Polymorphic functions do not provide a fix for this |
---|
| 3748 | deficiency\index{deficiencies!pointers to qualified types}, because type qualifiers are not part of |
---|
| 3749 | type values. Instead, overloading can be used to define \lstinline$strchr()$ for each combination |
---|
| 3750 | of qualifiers. |
---|
| 3751 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3752 | |
---|
| 3753 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3754 | Since incomplete types\index{incomplete types} are not type values, they can not be used as the |
---|
| 3755 | initializer in a type declaration, or as the type of a structure or union member. This prevents the |
---|
| 3756 | declaration of types that contain each other. |
---|
| 3757 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3758 | type t1; |
---|
| 3759 | type t2 = t1; // illegal: incomplete type t1. |
---|
| 3760 | type t1 = t2; |
---|
| 3761 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3762 | |
---|
| 3763 | The initializer in a file-scope declaration must be a constant expression. This means type |
---|
| 3764 | declarations can not build on opaque types, which is a deficiency\index{deficiencies!nesting opaque |
---|
| 3765 | types}. |
---|
| 3766 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3767 | extern type Huge; // extended-precision integer type. |
---|
| 3768 | type Rational = struct { |
---|
| 3769 | Huge numerator, denominator; // illegal |
---|
| 3770 | }; |
---|
| 3771 | struct Pair { |
---|
| 3772 | Huge first, second; // legal |
---|
| 3773 | }; |
---|
| 3774 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3775 | Without this restriction, \CFA might require ``module initialization'' code ( since |
---|
| 3776 | \lstinline$Rational$ has external linkage, it must be created before any other translation unit |
---|
| 3777 | instantiates it), and would force an ordering on the initialization of the translation unit that |
---|
| 3778 | defines \lstinline$Huge$ and the translation that declares \lstinline$Rational$. |
---|
| 3779 | |
---|
| 3780 | A benefit of the restriction is that it prevents the declaration in separate translation units of |
---|
| 3781 | types that contain each other, which would be hard to prevent otherwise. |
---|
| 3782 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3783 | // File a.c: |
---|
| 3784 | extern type t1; |
---|
| 3785 | type t2 = struct { t1 f1; ... } // illegal |
---|
| 3786 | // File b.c: |
---|
| 3787 | extern type t2; |
---|
| 3788 | type t1 = struct { t2 f2; ... } // illegal |
---|
| 3789 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3790 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3791 | |
---|
| 3792 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3793 | Since a \nonterm{type-declaration} is a \nonterm{declaration} and not a |
---|
| 3794 | \nonterm{struct-declaration}, type declarations can not be structure members. The form of |
---|
| 3795 | \nonterm{type-declaration} forbids arrays of, pointers to, and functions returning \lstinline$type$. |
---|
| 3796 | Hence the syntax of \nonterm{type-specifier} does not have to be extended to allow type-valued |
---|
| 3797 | expressions. It also side-steps the problem of type-valued expressions producing different values |
---|
| 3798 | in different declarations. |
---|
| 3799 | |
---|
| 3800 | Since a type declaration is not a \nonterm{parameter-declaration}, functions can not have explicit |
---|
| 3801 | type parameters. This may be too restrictive, but it attempts to make compilation simpler. Recall |
---|
| 3802 | that when traditional C scanners read in an identifier, they look it up in the symbol table to |
---|
| 3803 | determine whether or not it is a typedef name, and return a ``type'' or ``identifier'' token |
---|
| 3804 | depending on what they find. A type parameter would add a type name to the current scope. The |
---|
| 3805 | scope manipulations involved in parsing the declaration of a function that takes function pointer |
---|
| 3806 | parameters and returns a function pointer may just be too complicated. |
---|
| 3807 | |
---|
| 3808 | Explicit type parameters don't seem to be very useful, anyway, because their scope would not include |
---|
| 3809 | the return type of the function. Consider the following attempt to define a type-safe memory |
---|
| 3810 | allocation function. |
---|
| 3811 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3812 | #include <stdlib.h> |
---|
| 3813 | T * new( type T ) { return ( T * )malloc( sizeof( T) ); }; |
---|
| 3814 | @\ldots@ |
---|
| 3815 | int * ip = new( int ); |
---|
| 3816 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3817 | This looks sensible, but \CFA's declaration-before-use rules mean that ``\lstinline$T$'' in the |
---|
| 3818 | function body refers to the parameter, but the ``\lstinline$T$'' in the return type refers to the |
---|
| 3819 | meaning of \lstinline$T$ in the scope that contains \lstinline$new$; it could be undefined, or a |
---|
| 3820 | type name, or a function or variable name. Nothing good can result from such a situation. |
---|
| 3821 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3822 | |
---|
| 3823 | \examples |
---|
| 3824 | Since type declarations create new types, instances of types are always passed by value. |
---|
| 3825 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3826 | type A1 = int[2]; |
---|
| 3827 | void f1( A1 a ) { a[0] = 0; }; |
---|
| 3828 | typedef int A2[2]; |
---|
| 3829 | void f2( A2 a ) { a[0] = 0; }; |
---|
| 3830 | A1 v1; |
---|
| 3831 | A2 v2; |
---|
| 3832 | f1( v1 ); |
---|
| 3833 | f2( v2 ); |
---|
| 3834 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3835 | \lstinline$V1$ is passed by value, so \lstinline$f1()$'s assignment to \lstinline$a[0]$ does not |
---|
| 3836 | modify v1. \lstinline$V2$ is converted to a pointer, so \lstinline$f2()$ modifies |
---|
| 3837 | \lstinline$v2[0]$. |
---|
| 3838 | |
---|
| 3839 | A translation unit containing the declarations |
---|
| 3840 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3841 | extern type Complex;@\use{Complex}@ // opaque type declaration. |
---|
| 3842 | extern float abs( Complex );@\use{abs}@ |
---|
| 3843 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3844 | can contain declarations of complex numbers, which can be passed to \lstinline$abs$. Some other |
---|
| 3845 | translation unit must implement \lstinline$Complex$ and \lstinline$abs$. That unit might contain |
---|
| 3846 | the declarations |
---|
| 3847 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3848 | type Complex = struct { float re, im; };@\impl{Complex}@ |
---|
| 3849 | Complex cplx_i = { 0.0, 1.0 };@\impl{cplx_i}@ |
---|
| 3850 | float abs( Complex c ) {@\impl{abs( Complex )}@ |
---|
| 3851 | return sqrt( c.re * c.re + c.im * c.im ); |
---|
| 3852 | } |
---|
| 3853 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3854 | Note that \lstinline$c$ is implicitly converted to a \lstinline$struct$ so that its components can |
---|
| 3855 | be retrieved. |
---|
| 3856 | |
---|
| 3857 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3858 | type Time_of_day = int;@\impl{Time_of_day}@ // seconds since midnight. |
---|
| 3859 | Time_of_day ?+?( Time_of_day t1, int seconds ) {@\impl{?+?}@ |
---|
| 3860 | return (( int)t1 + seconds ) % 86400; |
---|
| 3861 | } |
---|
| 3862 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3863 | \lstinline$t1$ must be cast to its implementation type to prevent infinite recursion. |
---|
| 3864 | |
---|
| 3865 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3866 | Within the scope of a type definition, an instance of the type can be viewed as having that type or |
---|
| 3867 | as having the implementation type. In the \lstinline$Time_of_day$ example, the difference is |
---|
| 3868 | important. Different languages have treated the distinction between the abstraction and the |
---|
| 3869 | implementation in different ways. |
---|
| 3870 | \begin{itemize} |
---|
| 3871 | \item |
---|
| 3872 | Inside a Clu cluster \cite{clu}, the declaration of an instance states which view applies. Two |
---|
| 3873 | primitives called \lstinline$up$ and \lstinline$down$ can be used to convert between the views. |
---|
| 3874 | \item |
---|
| 3875 | The Simula class \cite{Simula87} is essentially a record type. Since the only operations on a |
---|
| 3876 | record are member selection and assignment, which can not be overloaded, there is never any |
---|
| 3877 | ambiguity as to whether the abstraction or the implementation view is being used. In {\CC} |
---|
| 3878 | \cite{c++}, operations on class instances include assignment and ``\lstinline$&$'', which can be |
---|
| 3879 | overloaded. A ``scope resolution'' operator can be used inside the class to specify whether the |
---|
| 3880 | abstract or implementation version of the operation should be used. |
---|
| 3881 | \item |
---|
| 3882 | An Ada derived type definition \cite{ada} creates a new type from an old type, and also implicitly |
---|
| 3883 | declares derived subprograms that correspond to the existing subprograms that use the old type as a |
---|
| 3884 | parameter type or result type. The derived subprograms are clones of the existing subprograms with |
---|
| 3885 | the old type replaced by the derived type. Literals and aggregates of the old type are also cloned. |
---|
| 3886 | In other words, the abstract view provides exactly the same operations as the implementation view. |
---|
| 3887 | This allows the abstract view to be used in all cases. |
---|
| 3888 | |
---|
| 3889 | The derived subprograms can be replaced by programmer-specified subprograms. This is an exception |
---|
| 3890 | to the normal scope rules, which forbid duplicate definitions of a subprogram in a scope. In this |
---|
| 3891 | case, explicit conversions between the derived type and the old type can be used. |
---|
| 3892 | \end{itemize} |
---|
| 3893 | \CFA's rules are like Clu's, except that implicit conversions and |
---|
| 3894 | conversion costs allow it to do away with most uses of \lstinline$up$ and \lstinline$down$. |
---|
| 3895 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3896 | |
---|
| 3897 | |
---|
| 3898 | \subsubsection{Default functions and objects} |
---|
| 3899 | |
---|
| 3900 | A declaration\index{type declaration} of a type identifier \lstinline$T$ with type-class |
---|
| 3901 | \lstinline$type$ implicitly declares a \define{default assignment} function |
---|
| 3902 | \lstinline$T ?=?( T *, T )$\use{?=?}, with the same scope\index{scopes} and linkage\index{linkage} as |
---|
| 3903 | the identifier \lstinline$T$. |
---|
| 3904 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3905 | Assignment is central to C's imperative programming style, and every existing C object type has |
---|
| 3906 | assignment defined for it ( except for array types, which are treated as pointer types for purposes |
---|
| 3907 | of assignment). Without this rule, nearly every inferred type parameter would need an accompanying |
---|
| 3908 | assignment assertion parameter. If a type parameter should not have an assignment operation, |
---|
| 3909 | \lstinline$dtype$ should be used. If a type should not have assignment defined, the user can define |
---|
| 3910 | an assignment function that causes a run-time error, or provide an external declaration but no |
---|
| 3911 | definition and thus cause a link-time error. |
---|
| 3912 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3913 | |
---|
| 3914 | A definition\index{type definition} of a type identifier \lstinline$T$ with implementation |
---|
| 3915 | type\index{implementation type} \lstinline$I$ and type-class \lstinline$type$ implicitly defines a |
---|
| 3916 | default assignment function. A definition\index{type definition} of a type identifier \lstinline$T$ |
---|
| 3917 | with implementation type \lstinline$I$ and an assertion list implicitly defines \define{default |
---|
| 3918 | functions} and \define{default objects} as declared by the assertion declarations. The default |
---|
| 3919 | objects and functions have the same scope\index{scopes} and linkage\index{linkage} as the identifier |
---|
| 3920 | \lstinline$T$. Their values are determined as follows: |
---|
| 3921 | \begin{itemize} |
---|
| 3922 | \item |
---|
| 3923 | If at the definition of \lstinline$T$ there is visible a declaration of an object with the same name |
---|
| 3924 | as the default object, and if the type of that object with all occurrence of \lstinline$I$ replaced |
---|
| 3925 | by \lstinline$T$ is compatible with the type of the default object, then the default object is |
---|
| 3926 | initialized with that object. Otherwise the scope of the declaration of \lstinline$T$ must contain |
---|
| 3927 | a definition of the default object. |
---|
| 3928 | |
---|
| 3929 | \item |
---|
| 3930 | If at the definition of \lstinline$T$ there is visible a declaration of a function with the same |
---|
| 3931 | name as the default function, and if the type of that function with all occurrence of \lstinline$I$ |
---|
| 3932 | replaced by \lstinline$T$ is compatible with the type of the default function, then the default |
---|
| 3933 | function calls that function after converting its arguments and returns the converted result. |
---|
| 3934 | |
---|
| 3935 | Otherwise, if \lstinline$I$ contains exactly one anonymous member\index{anonymous member} such that |
---|
| 3936 | at the definition of \lstinline$T$ there is visible a declaration of a function with the same name |
---|
| 3937 | as the default function, and the type of that function with all occurrences of the anonymous |
---|
| 3938 | member's type in its parameter list replaced by \lstinline$T$ is compatible with the type of the |
---|
| 3939 | default function, then the default function calls that function after converting its arguments and |
---|
| 3940 | returns the result. |
---|
| 3941 | |
---|
| 3942 | Otherwise the scope of the declaration of \lstinline$T$ must contain a definition of the default |
---|
| 3943 | function. |
---|
| 3944 | \end{itemize} |
---|
| 3945 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 3946 | Note that a pointer to a default function will not compare as equal to a pointer to the inherited |
---|
| 3947 | function. |
---|
| 3948 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 3949 | |
---|
| 3950 | A function or object with the same type and name as a default function or object that is declared |
---|
| 3951 | within the scope of the definition of \lstinline$T$ replaces the default function or object. |
---|
| 3952 | |
---|
| 3953 | \examples |
---|
| 3954 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3955 | context s( type T ) { |
---|
| 3956 | T a, b; |
---|
| 3957 | } |
---|
| 3958 | struct impl { int left, right; } a = { 0, 0 }; |
---|
| 3959 | type Pair | s( Pair ) = struct impl; |
---|
| 3960 | Pair b = { 1, 1 }; |
---|
| 3961 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3962 | The definition of \lstinline$Pair$ implicitly defines two objects \lstinline$a$ and \lstinline$b$. |
---|
| 3963 | \lstinline$Pair a$ inherits its value from the \lstinline$struct impl a$. The definition of |
---|
| 3964 | \lstinline$Pair b$ is compulsory because there is no \lstinline$struct impl b$ to construct a value |
---|
| 3965 | from. |
---|
| 3966 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3967 | context ss( type T ) { |
---|
| 3968 | T clone( T ); |
---|
| 3969 | void munge( T * ); |
---|
| 3970 | } |
---|
| 3971 | type Whatsit | ss( Whatsit );@\use{Whatsit}@ |
---|
| 3972 | type Doodad | ss( Doodad ) = struct doodad {@\use{Doodad}@ |
---|
| 3973 | Whatsit; // anonymous member |
---|
| 3974 | int extra; |
---|
| 3975 | }; |
---|
| 3976 | Doodad clone( Doodad ) { ... } |
---|
| 3977 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3978 | The definition of \lstinline$Doodad$ implicitly defines three functions: |
---|
| 3979 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3980 | Doodad ?=?( Doodad *, Doodad ); |
---|
| 3981 | Doodad clone( Doodad ); |
---|
| 3982 | void munge( Doodad * ); |
---|
| 3983 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3984 | The assignment function inherits \lstinline$struct doodad$'s assignment function because the types |
---|
| 3985 | match when \lstinline$struct doodad$ is replaced by \lstinline$Doodad$ throughout. |
---|
| 3986 | \lstinline$munge()$ inherits \lstinline$Whatsit$'s \lstinline$munge()$ because the types match when |
---|
| 3987 | \lstinline$Whatsit$ is replaced by \lstinline$Doodad$ in the parameter list. \lstinline$clone()$ |
---|
| 3988 | does \emph{not} inherit \lstinline$Whatsit$'s \lstinline$clone()$: replacement in the parameter |
---|
| 3989 | list yields ``\lstinline$Whatsit clone( Doodad )$'', which is not compatible with |
---|
| 3990 | \lstinline$Doodad$'s \lstinline$clone()$'s type. Hence the definition of |
---|
| 3991 | ``\lstinline$Doodad clone( Doodad )$'' is necessary. |
---|
| 3992 | |
---|
| 3993 | Default functions and objects are subject to the normal scope rules. |
---|
| 3994 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 3995 | type T = @\ldots@; |
---|
| 3996 | T a_T = @\ldots@; // Default assignment used. |
---|
| 3997 | T ?=?( T *, T ); |
---|
| 3998 | T a_T = @\ldots@; // Programmer-defined assignment called. |
---|
| 3999 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4000 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 4001 | A compiler warning would be helpful in this situation. |
---|
| 4002 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 4003 | |
---|
| 4004 | \begin{rationale} |
---|
| 4005 | The \emph{class} construct of object-oriented programming languages performs three independent |
---|
| 4006 | functions. It \emph{encapsulates} a data structure; it defines a \emph{subtype} relationship, whereby |
---|
| 4007 | instances of one class may be used in contexts that require instances of another; and it allows one |
---|
| 4008 | class to \emph{inherit} the implementation of another. |
---|
| 4009 | |
---|
| 4010 | In \CFA, encapsulation is provided by opaque types and the scope rules, and subtyping is provided |
---|
| 4011 | by specifications and assertions. Inheritance is provided by default functions and objects. |
---|
| 4012 | \end{rationale} |
---|
| 4013 | |
---|
| 4014 | |
---|
| 4015 | \section{Statements and blocks} |
---|
| 4016 | Many statements contain expressions, which may have more than one interpretation. The following |
---|
| 4017 | sections describe how the \CFA translator selects an interpretation. In all cases the result of |
---|
| 4018 | the selection shall be a single unambiguous interpretation\index{interpretations}. |
---|
| 4019 | |
---|
| 4020 | |
---|
| 4021 | \setcounter{subsection}{2} |
---|
| 4022 | \subsection{Expression and null statements} |
---|
| 4023 | |
---|
| 4024 | The expression in an expression statement is treated as being cast to \lstinline$void$. |
---|
| 4025 | |
---|
| 4026 | |
---|
| 4027 | \subsection{Selection statements} |
---|
| 4028 | |
---|
| 4029 | The controlling expression \lstinline$E$ in the switch statement |
---|
| 4030 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4031 | switch ( E ) ... |
---|
| 4032 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4033 | may have more than one interpretation, but it shall have only one interpretation with an integral |
---|
| 4034 | type. An integer promotion\index{integer promotion} is performed on the expression if necessary. |
---|
| 4035 | The constant expressions in \lstinline$case$ statements with the switch are converted to the |
---|
| 4036 | promoted type. |
---|
| 4037 | |
---|
| 4038 | |
---|
| 4039 | \subsection{Iteration statements} |
---|
| 4040 | |
---|
| 4041 | The controlling expression \lstinline$E$ in the loops |
---|
| 4042 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4043 | if ( E ) ... |
---|
| 4044 | while ( E ) ... |
---|
| 4045 | do ... while ( E ); |
---|
| 4046 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4047 | is treated as ``\lstinline$( int )((E)!=0)$''. |
---|
| 4048 | |
---|
| 4049 | The statement |
---|
| 4050 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4051 | for ( a; b; c ) @\ldots@ |
---|
| 4052 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4053 | is treated as |
---|
| 4054 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4055 | for ( ( void )( a ); ( int )(( b )!=0); ( void )( c ) ) @\ldots@ |
---|
| 4056 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4057 | |
---|
| 4058 | |
---|
| 4059 | \subsection{Jump statements} |
---|
| 4060 | |
---|
| 4061 | An expression in a \lstinline$return$ statement is treated as being |
---|
| 4062 | cast to the result type of the function. |
---|
| 4063 | |
---|
| 4064 | |
---|
| 4065 | \setcounter{section}{9} |
---|
| 4066 | \section{Preprocessing directives} |
---|
| 4067 | |
---|
| 4068 | |
---|
| 4069 | \setcounter{subsection}{7} |
---|
| 4070 | \subsection{Predefined macro names} |
---|
| 4071 | |
---|
| 4072 | The implementation shall define the macro names \lstinline$__LINE__$, \lstinline$__FILE__$, |
---|
| 4073 | \lstinline$__DATE__$, and \lstinline$__TIME__$, as in the {\c11} standard. It shall not define the |
---|
| 4074 | macro name \lstinline$__STDC__$. |
---|
| 4075 | |
---|
| 4076 | In addition, the implementation shall define the macro name \lstinline$__CFORALL__$ to be the |
---|
| 4077 | decimal constant 1. |
---|
| 4078 | |
---|
| 4079 | |
---|
| 4080 | \appendix |
---|
| 4081 | |
---|
| 4082 | \chapter{Examples} |
---|
| 4083 | |
---|
| 4084 | \section{C types} |
---|
| 4085 | This section gives example specifications for some groups of types that are important in the C |
---|
| 4086 | language, in terms of the predefined operations that can be applied to those types. |
---|
| 4087 | |
---|
| 4088 | |
---|
| 4089 | \subsection{Scalar, arithmetic, and integral types} |
---|
| 4090 | |
---|
| 4091 | The pointer, integral, and floating-point types are all \define{scalar types}. All of these types |
---|
| 4092 | can be logically negated and compared. The assertion ``\lstinline$scalar( Complex )$'' should be read |
---|
| 4093 | as ``type \lstinline$Complex$ is scalar''. |
---|
| 4094 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4095 | context scalar( type T ) {@\impl{scalar}@ |
---|
| 4096 | int !?( T ); |
---|
| 4097 | int ?<?( T, T ), ?<=?( T, T ), ?==?( T, T ), ?>=?( T, T ), ?>?( T, T ), ?!=?( T, T ); |
---|
| 4098 | }; |
---|
| 4099 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4100 | |
---|
| 4101 | The integral and floating-point types are \define{arithmetic types}, which support the basic |
---|
| 4102 | arithmetic operators. The use of an assertion in the \nonterm{spec-parameter-list} declares that, |
---|
| 4103 | in order to be arithmetic, a type must also be scalar ( and hence that scalar operations are |
---|
| 4104 | available ). This is equivalent to inheritance of specifications. |
---|
| 4105 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4106 | context arithmetic( type T | scalar( T ) ) {@\impl{arithmetic}@@\use{scalar}@ |
---|
| 4107 | T +?( T ), -?( T ); |
---|
| 4108 | T ?*?( T, T ), ?/?( T, T ), ?+?( T, T ), ?-?( T, T ); |
---|
| 4109 | }; |
---|
| 4110 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4111 | |
---|
| 4112 | The various flavors of \lstinline$char$ and \lstinline$int$ and the enumerated types make up the |
---|
| 4113 | \define{integral types}. |
---|
| 4114 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4115 | context integral( type T | arithmetic( T ) ) {@\impl{integral}@@\use{arithmetic}@ |
---|
| 4116 | T ~?( T ); |
---|
| 4117 | T ?&?( T, T ), ?|?( T, T ), ?^?( T, T ); |
---|
| 4118 | T ?%?( T, T ); |
---|
| 4119 | T ?<<?( T, T ), ?>>?( T, T ); |
---|
| 4120 | }; |
---|
| 4121 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4122 | |
---|
| 4123 | |
---|
| 4124 | \subsection{Modifiable types} |
---|
| 4125 | \index{modifiable lvalue} |
---|
| 4126 | |
---|
| 4127 | The only operation that can be applied to all modifiable lvalues is simple assignment. |
---|
| 4128 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4129 | context m_lvalue( type T ) {@\impl{m_lvalue}@ |
---|
| 4130 | T ?=?( T *, T ); |
---|
| 4131 | }; |
---|
| 4132 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4133 | |
---|
| 4134 | Modifiable scalar lvalues are scalars and are modifiable lvalues, and assertions in the |
---|
| 4135 | \nonterm{spec-parameter-list} reflect those relationships. This is equivalent to multiple |
---|
| 4136 | inheritance of specifications. Scalars can also be incremented and decremented. |
---|
| 4137 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4138 | context m_l_scalar( type T | scalar( T ) | m_lvalue( T ) ) {@\impl{m_l_scalar}@ |
---|
| 4139 | T ?++( T * ), ?--( T * );@\use{scalar}@@\use{m_lvalue}@ |
---|
| 4140 | T ++?( T * ), --?( T * ); |
---|
| 4141 | }; |
---|
| 4142 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4143 | |
---|
| 4144 | Modifiable arithmetic lvalues are both modifiable scalar lvalues and arithmetic. Note that this |
---|
| 4145 | results in the ``inheritance'' of \lstinline$scalar$ along both paths. |
---|
| 4146 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4147 | context m_l_arithmetic( type T | m_l_scalar( T ) | arithmetic( T ) ) {@\impl{m_l_arithmetic}@ |
---|
| 4148 | T ?/=?( T *, T ), ?*=?( T *, T );@\use{m_l_scalar}@@\use{arithmetic}@ |
---|
| 4149 | T ?+=?( T *, T ), ?-=?( T *, T ); |
---|
| 4150 | }; |
---|
| 4151 | |
---|
| 4152 | context m_l_integral( type T | m_l_arithmetic( T ) | integral( T ) ) {@\impl{m_l_integral}@ |
---|
| 4153 | T ?&=?( T *, T ), ?|=?( T *, T ), ?^=?( T *, T );@\use{m_l_arithmetic}@ |
---|
| 4154 | T ?%=?( T *, T ), ?<<=?( T *, T ), ?>>=?( T *, T );@\use{integral}@ |
---|
| 4155 | }; |
---|
| 4156 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4157 | |
---|
| 4158 | |
---|
| 4159 | \subsection{Pointer and array types} |
---|
| 4160 | |
---|
| 4161 | Array types can barely be said to exist in {\c11}, since in most cases an array name is treated as a |
---|
| 4162 | constant pointer to the first element of the array, and the subscript expression |
---|
| 4163 | ``\lstinline$a[i]$'' is equivalent to the dereferencing expression ``\lstinline$(*( a+( i )))$''. |
---|
| 4164 | Technically, pointer arithmetic and pointer comparisons other than ``\lstinline$==$'' and |
---|
| 4165 | ``\lstinline$!=$'' are only defined for pointers to array elements, but the type system does not |
---|
| 4166 | enforce those restrictions. Consequently, there is no need for a separate ``array type'' |
---|
| 4167 | specification. |
---|
| 4168 | |
---|
| 4169 | Pointer types are scalar types. Like other scalar types, they have ``\lstinline$+$'' and |
---|
| 4170 | ``\lstinline$-$'' operators, but the types do not match the types of the operations in |
---|
| 4171 | \lstinline$arithmetic$, so these operators cannot be consolidated in \lstinline$scalar$. |
---|
| 4172 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4173 | context pointer( type P | scalar( P ) ) {@\impl{pointer}@@\use{scalar}@ |
---|
| 4174 | P ?+?( P, long int ), ?+?( long int, P ), ?-?( P, long int ); |
---|
| 4175 | ptrdiff_t ?-?( P, P ); |
---|
| 4176 | }; |
---|
| 4177 | |
---|
| 4178 | context m_l_pointer( type P | pointer( P ) | m_l_scalar( P ) ) {@\impl{m_l_pointer}@ |
---|
| 4179 | P ?+=?( P *, long int ), ?-=?( P *, long int ); |
---|
| 4180 | P ?=?( P *, void * ); |
---|
| 4181 | void * ?=?( void **, P ); |
---|
| 4182 | }; |
---|
| 4183 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4184 | |
---|
| 4185 | Specifications that define the dereference operator ( or subscript operator ) require two parameters, |
---|
| 4186 | one for the pointer type and one for the pointed-at ( or element ) type. Different specifications are |
---|
| 4187 | needed for each set of type qualifiers\index{type qualifiers}, because qualifiers are not included |
---|
| 4188 | in types. The assertion ``\lstinline$|ptr_to( Safe_pointer, int )$'' should be read as |
---|
| 4189 | ``\lstinline$Safe_pointer$ acts like a pointer to \lstinline$int$''. |
---|
| 4190 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4191 | context ptr_to( type P | pointer( P ), type T ) {@\impl{ptr_to}@@\use{pointer}@ |
---|
| 4192 | lvalue T *?( P ); lvalue T ?[?]( P, long int ); |
---|
| 4193 | }; |
---|
| 4194 | |
---|
| 4195 | context ptr_to_const( type P | pointer( P ), type T ) {@\impl{ptr_to_const}@ |
---|
| 4196 | const lvalue T *?( P ); const lvalue T ?[?]( P, long int );@\use{pointer}@ |
---|
| 4197 | }; |
---|
| 4198 | |
---|
| 4199 | context ptr_to_volatile( type P | pointer( P ), type T ) }@\impl{ptr_to_volatile}@ |
---|
| 4200 | volatile lvalue T *?( P ); volatile lvalue T ?[?]( P, long int );@\use{pointer}@ |
---|
| 4201 | }; |
---|
| 4202 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4203 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4204 | context ptr_to_const_volatile( type P | pointer( P ), type T ) }@\impl{ptr_to_const_volatile}@ |
---|
| 4205 | const volatile lvalue T *?( P );@\use{pointer}@ |
---|
| 4206 | const volatile lvalue T ?[?]( P, long int ); |
---|
| 4207 | }; |
---|
| 4208 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4209 | |
---|
| 4210 | Assignment to pointers is more complicated than is the case with other types, because the target's |
---|
| 4211 | type can have extra type qualifiers in the pointed-at type: a ``\lstinline$T *$'' can be assigned to |
---|
| 4212 | a ``\lstinline$const T *$'', a ``\lstinline$volatile T *$'', and a ``\lstinline$const volatile T *$''. |
---|
| 4213 | Again, the pointed-at type is passed in, so that assertions can connect these specifications to the |
---|
| 4214 | ``\lstinline$ptr_to$'' specifications. |
---|
| 4215 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4216 | context m_l_ptr_to( type P | m_l_pointer( P ),@\use{m_l_pointer}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to}@ type T | ptr_to( P, T )@\use{ptr_to}@ { |
---|
| 4217 | P ?=?( P *, T * ); |
---|
| 4218 | T * ?=?( T **, P ); |
---|
| 4219 | }; |
---|
| 4220 | |
---|
| 4221 | context m_l_ptr_to_const( type P | m_l_pointer( P ),@\use{m_l_pointer}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to_const}@ type T | ptr_to_const( P, T )@\use{ptr_to_const}@) { |
---|
| 4222 | P ?=?( P *, const T * ); |
---|
| 4223 | const T * ?=?( const T **, P ); |
---|
| 4224 | }; |
---|
| 4225 | |
---|
| 4226 | context m_l_ptr_to_volatile( type P | m_l_pointer( P ),@\use{m_l_pointer}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to_volatile}@ type T | ptr_to_volatile( P, T )) {@\use{ptr_to_volatile}@ |
---|
| 4227 | P ?=?( P *, volatile T * ); |
---|
| 4228 | volatile T * ?=?( volatile T **, P ); |
---|
| 4229 | }; |
---|
| 4230 | |
---|
| 4231 | context m_l_ptr_to_const_volatile( type P | ptr_to_const_volatile( P ),@\use{ptr_to_const_volatile}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_to_const_volatile}@ |
---|
| 4232 | type T | m_l_ptr_to_volatile( P, T ) | m_l_ptr_to_const( P )) {@\use{m_l_ptr_to_const}@@\use{m_l_ptr_to_volatile}@ |
---|
| 4233 | P ?=?( P *, const volatile T * ); |
---|
| 4234 | const volatile T * ?=?( const volatile T **, P ); |
---|
| 4235 | }; |
---|
| 4236 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4237 | |
---|
| 4238 | Note the regular manner in which type qualifiers appear in those specifications. An alternative |
---|
| 4239 | specification can make use of the fact that qualification of the pointed-at type is part of a |
---|
| 4240 | pointer type to capture that regularity. |
---|
| 4241 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4242 | context m_l_ptr_like( type MyP | m_l_pointer( MyP ),@\use{m_l_pointer}@@\impl{m_l_ptr_like}@ type CP | m_l_pointer( CP ) ) { |
---|
| 4243 | MyP ?=?( MyP *, CP ); |
---|
| 4244 | CP ?=?( CP *, MyP ); |
---|
| 4245 | }; |
---|
| 4246 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4247 | The assertion ``\lstinline$| m_l_ptr_like( Safe_ptr, const int * )$'' should be read as |
---|
| 4248 | ``\lstinline$Safe_ptr$ is a pointer type like \lstinline$const int *$''. This specification has two |
---|
| 4249 | defects, compared to the original four: there is no automatic assertion that dereferencing a |
---|
| 4250 | \lstinline$MyP$ produces an lvalue of the type that \lstinline$CP$ points at, and the |
---|
| 4251 | ``\lstinline$|m_l_pointer( CP )$'' assertion provides only a weak assurance that the argument passed |
---|
| 4252 | to \lstinline$CP$ really is a pointer type. |
---|
| 4253 | |
---|
| 4254 | |
---|
| 4255 | \section{Relationships between operations} |
---|
| 4256 | |
---|
| 4257 | Different operators often have related meanings; for instance, in C, ``\lstinline$+$'', |
---|
| 4258 | ``\lstinline$+=$'', and the two versions of ``\lstinline$++$'' perform variations of addition. |
---|
| 4259 | Languages like {\CC} and Ada allow programmers to define operators for new types, but do not |
---|
| 4260 | require that these relationships be preserved, or even that all of the operators be implemented. |
---|
| 4261 | Completeness and consistency is left to the good taste and discretion of the programmer. It is |
---|
| 4262 | possible to encourage these attributes by providing generic operator functions, or member functions |
---|
| 4263 | of abstract classes, that are defined in terms of other, related operators. |
---|
| 4264 | |
---|
| 4265 | In \CFA, polymorphic functions provide the equivalent of these generic operators, and |
---|
| 4266 | specifications explicitly define the minimal implementation that a programmer should provide. This |
---|
| 4267 | section shows a few examples. |
---|
| 4268 | |
---|
| 4269 | |
---|
| 4270 | \subsection{Relational and equality operators} |
---|
| 4271 | |
---|
| 4272 | The different comparison operators have obvious relationships, but there is no obvious subset of the |
---|
| 4273 | operations to use in the implementation of the others. However, it is usually convenient to |
---|
| 4274 | implement a single comparison function that returns a negative integer, 0, or a positive integer if |
---|
| 4275 | its first argument is respectively less than, equal to, or greater than its second argument; the |
---|
| 4276 | library function \lstinline$strcmp$ is an example. |
---|
| 4277 | |
---|
| 4278 | C and \CFA have an extra, non-obvious comparison operator: ``\lstinline$!$'', logical negation, |
---|
| 4279 | returns 1 if its operand compares equal to 0, and 0 otherwise. |
---|
| 4280 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4281 | context comparable( type T ) { |
---|
| 4282 | const T 0; |
---|
| 4283 | int compare( T, T ); |
---|
| 4284 | } |
---|
| 4285 | |
---|
| 4286 | forall( type T | comparable( T ) ) int ?<?( T l, T r ) { |
---|
| 4287 | return compare( l, r ) < 0; |
---|
| 4288 | } |
---|
| 4289 | // ... similarly for <=, ==, >=, >, and !=. |
---|
| 4290 | |
---|
| 4291 | forall( type T | comparable( T ) ) int !?( T operand ) { |
---|
| 4292 | return !compare( operand, 0 ); |
---|
| 4293 | } |
---|
| 4294 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4295 | |
---|
| 4296 | |
---|
| 4297 | \subsection{Arithmetic and integer operations} |
---|
| 4298 | |
---|
| 4299 | A complete arithmetic type would provide the arithmetic operators and the corresponding assignment |
---|
| 4300 | operators. Of these, the assignment operators are more likely to be implemented directly, because |
---|
| 4301 | it is usually more efficient to alter the contents of an existing object than to create and return a |
---|
| 4302 | new one. Similarly, a complete integral type would provide integral operations based on integral |
---|
| 4303 | assignment operations. |
---|
| 4304 | \begin{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4305 | context arith_base( type T ) { |
---|
| 4306 | const T 1; |
---|
| 4307 | T ?+=?( T *, T ), ?-=?( T *, T ), ?*=?( T *, T ), ?/=?( T *, T ); |
---|
| 4308 | } |
---|
| 4309 | |
---|
| 4310 | forall( type T | arith_base( T ) ) T ?+?( T l, T r ) { |
---|
| 4311 | return l += r; |
---|
| 4312 | } |
---|
| 4313 | |
---|
| 4314 | forall( type T | arith_base( T ) ) T ?++( T * operand ) { |
---|
| 4315 | T temporary = *operand; |
---|
| 4316 | *operand += 1; |
---|
| 4317 | return temporary; |
---|
| 4318 | } |
---|
| 4319 | |
---|
| 4320 | forall( type T | arith_base( T ) ) T ++?( T * operand ) { |
---|
| 4321 | return *operand += 1; |
---|
| 4322 | } |
---|
| 4323 | // ... similarly for -, --, *, and /. |
---|
| 4324 | |
---|
| 4325 | context int_base( type T ) { |
---|
| 4326 | T ?&=?( T *, T ), ?|=?( T *, T ), ?^=?( T *, T ); |
---|
| 4327 | T ?%=?( T *, T ), ?<<=?( T *, T ), ?>>=?( T *, T ); |
---|
| 4328 | } |
---|
| 4329 | |
---|
| 4330 | forall( type T | int_base( T ) ) T ?&?( T l, T r ) { |
---|
| 4331 | return l &= r; |
---|
| 4332 | } |
---|
| 4333 | // ... similarly for |, ^, %, <<, and >>. |
---|
| 4334 | \end{lstlisting} |
---|
| 4335 | |
---|
| 4336 | Note that, although an arithmetic type would certainly provide comparison functions, and an integral |
---|
| 4337 | type would provide arithmetic operations, there does not have to be any relationship among |
---|
| 4338 | \lstinline$int_base$, \lstinline$arith_base$ and \lstinline$comparable$. Note also that these |
---|
| 4339 | declarations provide guidance and assistance, but they do not define an absolutely minimal set of |
---|
| 4340 | requirements. A truly minimal implementation of an arithmetic type might only provide |
---|
| 4341 | \lstinline$0$, \lstinline$1$, and \lstinline$?-=?$, which would be used by polymorphic |
---|
| 4342 | \lstinline$?+=?$, \lstinline$?*=?$, and \lstinline$?/=?$ functions. |
---|
| 4343 | |
---|
| 4344 | Note also that \lstinline$short$ is an integer type in C11 terms, but has no operations! |
---|
| 4345 | |
---|
| 4346 | |
---|
| 4347 | \chapter{TODO} |
---|
| 4348 | Review index entries. |
---|
| 4349 | |
---|
| 4350 | Restrict allowed to qualify anything, or type/dtype parameters, but only affects pointers. This gets |
---|
| 4351 | into \lstinline$noalias$ territory. Qualifying anything (``\lstinline$short restrict rs$'') means |
---|
| 4352 | pointer parameters of \lstinline$?++$, etc, would need restrict qualifiers. |
---|
| 4353 | |
---|
| 4354 | Enumerated types. Constants are not ints. Overloading. Definition should be ``representable as an |
---|
| 4355 | integer type'', not ``as an int''. C11 usual conversions freely convert to and from ordinary |
---|
| 4356 | integer types via assignment, which works between any integer types. Does enum Color ?*?( enum |
---|
| 4357 | Color, enum Color ) really make sense? ?++ does, but it adds (int)1. |
---|
| 4358 | |
---|
| 4359 | Operators on {,signed,unsigned} char and other small types. ?<? harmless; ?*? questionable for |
---|
| 4360 | chars. Generic selections make these choices visible. Safe conversion operators? Predefined |
---|
| 4361 | ``promotion'' function? |
---|
| 4362 | |
---|
| 4363 | \lstinline$register$ assignment might be handled as assignment to a temporary with copying back and |
---|
| 4364 | forth, but copying must not be done by assignment. |
---|
| 4365 | |
---|
| 4366 | Don't use ptrdiff\_t by name in the predefineds. |
---|
| 4367 | |
---|
| 4368 | Polymorphic objects. Polymorphic typedefs and type declarations. |
---|
| 4369 | |
---|
| 4370 | |
---|
| 4371 | \bibliographystyle{plain} |
---|
| 4372 | \bibliography{refrat} |
---|
| 4373 | |
---|
| 4374 | |
---|
| 4375 | \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{\indexname} % add index name to table of contents |
---|
| 4376 | \begin{theindex} |
---|
| 4377 | Italic page numbers give the location of the main entry for the referenced term. Plain page numbers |
---|
| 4378 | denote uses of the indexed term. Entries for grammar non-terminals are italicized. A typewriter |
---|
| 4379 | font is used for grammar terminals and program identifiers. |
---|
| 4380 | \indexspace |
---|
| 4381 | \input{refrat.ind} |
---|
| 4382 | \end{theindex} |
---|
| 4383 | |
---|
| 4384 | \end{document} |
---|
| 4385 | |
---|
| 4386 | % Local Variables: % |
---|
| 4387 | % tab-width: 4 % |
---|
| 4388 | % fill-column: 100 % |
---|
| 4389 | % compile-command: "make" % |
---|
| 4390 | % End: % |
---|