Tuples
======

This proposal is to update tuples, as they were created by Rob in his thesis,
to address problems have appeared in their use since then. This proposal is
an attempt to address some of those problems. Adding new functionality,
updating existing features and removing some problematic features.

The core of change is breaking the current restructurable tuples into
unstructured tuples and structured tuples. Unstructured tuples handle most
of the existing uses, with structured tuples filling in a few missing
use cases.

Current State of Tuples
-----------------------
An overview of the current design, as the starting place for the proposal.

### Tuple Syntax

An overview of the syntax for the main three components of tuples, the types
of tuples, the tuple expressions/values (constructing tuples) and tuple index
expressions (deconstructing tuples).

Current syntax for tuple types:
-   Nullary: [void] or []
-   Unary: [TYPE]
-   Binary: [TYPE, TYPE]
-   The pattern continues for three or more elements.

Current syntax for tuple expressions:
-   Nullary: None. (Same as `void`, use return without an expression.)
-   Unary: {EXPR} (This might be an error, but I can't make [EXPR] work.)
-   Binary: [EXPR, EXPR]
-   The pattern from binary continues for three or more elements.

Current syntax for tuple index expressions, is much simpler. It uses the
member index expression syntax, except the member name is replaced with the
element index, which is an integer literal, showing the index of the element
to get.

Here is a brief example showing all three parts.

	[char, int] tup;
	tup = ['a', 0];
	int value = t.1;

### Mass and Multi-Assignment

Two special forms of assignment can be used to set values in tuples.
Mass Assignment assigns every element in the tuple to a single source value.

	[int, long, float] dst;
	int src = 4
	dst = src;
	// Expands to roughly: dst.0 = src, dst.1 = src, dst.2 = src

Multi-Assignment assigns every element to the matching element of a source
tuple (both tuples must be the same side).

	[int, long, float] dst;
	[int, long, double] src = [1, 20, 300.0];
	dst = src;
	// Expands to roughly: dst.0 = src.0, dst.1 = src.1, dst.2 = src.2
	// Note that the last assignment is not an exact match,
	// an implicit conversion will be applied.

### Tuple Restructuring

Tuples can be restructured as part of overload resolution. Function calls
will unpack tuples and repack tuples to match signatures. This is a type of
implicit conversion and is considered during overload resolution.

A simple example is matching multiple parameters of a function to a single
argument expression, each parameter is bound to a different element of the
returned tuple.

	[int, int] paramFunc();
	void callFunc(int a, int b, int c, int d);

	void restructure() {
		callFunc(paramFunc(), paramFunc());
	}
	// Roughly equivilent to:
	void restructure() {
		[int, int] fst = paramFunc();
		[int, int] snd = paramFunc();
		callFunc(fst.0, fst.1, snd.0, snd.1);
	}

This is the unique feature of Cforall tuples. There are a few languages have
multiple return values, but they are usually are a stand alone feature.

### Tuple Casts

C-style casts can be used on tuples. These usually conversion casts (casts
that preform operations on the cast type, as opposed to reinterpreting the
existing value).

Tuple casts can remove elements from the end of a tuple and apply a recursive
cast to any of the elements. As an example:

	[char, char, char] x = ['a', 'b', 'c'];
	([int, char])x;

This casts the first element type from a char to an int and drops the last
element. The second line can be replaced the following code, that creates
a new tuple of by casting the kept elements of the old tuple:

	[(int)x.0, (char)x.1];

Note, tuple casting is more restricted than the implicit tuple restructuring.
It cannot do any restructuring beyond dropping the trailing elements of
tuples. For example, you cannot cast `[int, [bool, char], int]` to be a
`[int, bool, char, int]`.

### Polymorphic Tuple Parameters

One kind of polymorphic parameter is the tuple type parameter, previously
noted by the `ttype` keyword and now marked by a tailing ellipses (`...`).
Although described as a tuple type, it is usually viewed as its flattened
sequence of types.

	forall(T, Ts... | { T max(T, T); T max(Ts); })
	T max(T arg, Ts args) {
		return max(arg, max(args));
	}

This introduces a type name into scope. It is used as a type but because the
tuple is flattened, the second assertion "T max(Ts);" matches types with
multiple parameters, although it is used as a tuple function inside the
function body. For example, in three argument case (all three of the
same type), both assertions can match the same function. Then "Ts args"
introduces args as a tuple, where it is past to max.

Issues with the Current State
-----------------------------
There are a veriaty of problems with the current implementation which we
would like to fix.

### Tuples are not Objects

Spoilers, this proposal actually takes them further away from being objects.
But this illistrates why the current version is not as useful is it could be.

Tuples do not have the lifetime operators (copy construction, copy assignment
and destructor) and cannot be passed in as a bundle to polymorphic functions.
The multi-assignment operation is not a single function and is not passed
in as an assertion.

This prevents tuples from being interwoven with regular polymorphic code.

### Providing TType Arguments is Inconistent

The syntax for ttype arguments is slightly inconsistent. It hasn't come up
much yet because you do not directly provide ttype polymorphic arguments to
functions and the are very few existing use-cases for ttype structures.

Passing arguments to a function inlines the arguments into inlines the
arguments while passing them to a polymorphic type requires them to be
enclosed in a tuple. Compare `function(x, y, z)` with `Type(A, [B, C])`.

This did not come up previously as there was little reason to explicity
provide ttype arguments. They are implicit for functions and there is very
little use case for a ttype on a struct or union.

### Syntax Conflict

The tuple syntax conflicts with designators and the new attribute syntax.
These conflicts break C compatability goals of Cforall. Designators have had
to their syntax change and Cforall cannot parse the new attributes.

Although most of this redesign is about the semantics of tuples, but an
update to tuple syntax that removes these conflicts that would improve the
compatability of Cforall going forward (and also open up the new attribute
syntax for cforall features).

Change in Model
---------------
This proposal modifies the existing tuples to better handle its main use
cases. There are some use cases that are no longer handled, and a new
struct tuple is added to cover those cases.

The existing tuples will be even more "unstructured" than they are now.
Tuples are considered a sequence of types or typed entities. These packs are
then unpacked into the surounding context. Put differently, tuples are now
flattened as much as possible, with some places (like parameter lists) being
treated as an implicit tuple and the tuple being flattened into that.

Structred tuples are now a separate feature, a structure called "tuple".
These are polymorphic structures, an instance should act as a structure
except that use indices instead of field names. These structures shouldn't
have to be used often, but fill in the use cases that unstructured tuples
no longer support.

Note that the underlying implementation might not actually look like this.

Changed Features
----------------
Some of the concrete changes to the features of the languages.

### Structured Tuple Type

There are still use cases for a structured tuple type. The issues in
supporting both were because there was one feature trying to support both
uses. Hence, it is added back in as its own feature.

There should be a standard library or built-in type named `tuple`, it doesn't
need a special syntax to write types or instances. The type definition might
use some primitive support, but if supported as a regular type would look
something like this:

	forall(Ts...)
	struct tuple {
		inline Ts all;
	};

This will be constructed the same way as most types, a list initializer with
each tuple argument, and the lifetime functions (copy construction, copy
assignment and destruction) work the same. Field access works two ways, the
first is accessing the all field, effectively converting the structured
"struct" tuple into an unstructured tuple, the other is to use tuple indexing
directly on the structure as if it was an unstructured tuple.

(If inline doesn't work, just rename all to `get`. It does make things a bit
longer but has no change in functionality. If the all access doesn't work,
that is a bit more of a problem, tuple slicing might provide a work around.)

### Type Qualifier Distribution

Because tuples are no longer object types, applying type modifiers to them,
such as cv-qualifiers and pointers, no longer makes sense. That syntax is
now considered distribution, applying the type modifier to each element of
the tuple.

Previously `[int, bool] &` would mean a reference to a tuple of an integer
and a boolean. Now it would be an alias for `[int &, bool &]`, a tuple of a
reference to an integer and a reference to a boolean. This also applies to
polymorphic tuple type packs `Ts &` in polymorphic functions.

This allows to specify restrictions on types as you would with a single
type variable. For example, this can help replace the special cased
tuple operations, multi-assignment (N-to-N) and mass-assignment (1-to-N).

	// Multi-Assignment
	forall(T, Us... |
			{ T & ?=?(T &, T const &); Us & ?=?(Us &, Us const &); })
	[T, Us] & ?=?(T & dst, Us & dsts, T const & src, Us const & srcs) {
		dst = src;
		dsts = srcs;
		return [dst, dsts];
	}

	// Mass-Assignment
	forall(T, U, Vs... |
			{ U & ?=?(U &, T const &); Vs & ?=?(Vs &, T const &); })
	[U, Vs] & ?=?(U & dst, Vs & dsts, T const & src) {
		dst = src;
		dsts = src;
		return [dst, dsts];
	}

These may not work exactly as given (for one, the copy assignment assertion
in the first function would likely be redundent/conflicting with the implicit
assertions on the parameters), but they show the pattern. Multi-assignment
is also would be very hard to write with simple tuple types, because the
relationship between the two halves of the parameter list does have to line
up, that cannot be enforced with two different tuples.

### Type Packs

This is not a new feature, but a reframing/extension of existing tuple tuple
polymorphic parameters as polymorphic type packs. The `Vars...` syntax
introduces a pack of types into scope. It can be used in many of the same
ways as a tuple tuple, but in some new ways to.

The primary existing use remains, you can use a polymorphic pack in a
parameter list, both as part of an assertion and in the signature of the
main function. The difference, is that this is not an enclosed tuple, but
a series of types. The only effective difference this makes is it doesn't
prefer to match another tuple/pack.

This pattern continues to a parameter defined with a pack of types, which
is considered a pack of parameters, and the name of it introduces is a pack
of variables, or a flattened tuple.

	forall(Params...)
	void function(Params values);

New uses cases include declarations of members and variables. For example,
the creation the structured tuple structure:

	forall(Fields...)
	struct tuple {
		Fields get;
	};

This is again, treated as a pack of members. They have the same layout as
if they were written out by hand. Now, the name get is still accessed is if
it was a regular, singular, member. The result of that expression is a
pack expression, a tuple of all the field accesses, which can be used with a
tuple index expression to access the underlying members. For example:

	tuple(bool, char, int) data = { ... };
	// This expression:
	data.get.2;
	// Is the same as (if the fields had these names):
	data.[__anonymous0, __anonymous1, __anonymous2].2;

For local declarations it works similarly, except the name introduced is
directly usable as a tuple.

	forall(Objects...)
	void function( ??? ) {
		???
		Objects objs = ???;
		???
	}

### Tuple Declaration/Deconstruction

Declaring a tuple acts as a pack of variable declarations. When this is done
with written out type (as opposed to a polymorphic parameter above), then the
elements of the tuple can be named.

	[int quo, int rem] ret = divmod(a, b);

Here `ret` refers to the tuple, the entire pack, while `quo` and `rem`
give explicit names to elements of the tuple. Not all the names have to be
provided, at the very least, any element name can be omitted if the pack name
is provided, and the pack name can be omitted if all the element names are
provided. That would ensure every element can be accessed, but it could be
reduced even more, effectively immediately dropping some values if there is
no named to access it.

### Tuple Casts

Tuple casts are no longer allowed to do any restructuring. Internal
restructuring would not be useful, as there is no internal structure.
Dropping tail elements could be added back in but it is a narrow use case
so it may be replaced with other features (for example: tuple slicing).

### Forbidden Tuples

The unstructured tuple cannot represent all the types that the previous
semi-structured tuple could. These cases still exist in various ways,
special in the internals of a polymorphic type, but general should be
considered in their reduced form.

Forbidding some of these tuples may remove ambiguity and solve some syntax
conflicts that currently exist.

Nullary, or 0 element tuples, are equivlent to void, the type that carries
no data, because they do not either. It should either be replaced with void
or removed entirely when it appears in a larger sequence.

	// For example, this function:
	forall(Ts...) Ts example(int first
	// With Ts = [], should not be treated as:
	[] example(int first, [] middle, int last);
	// But instead:
	void example(int first, int last);

Unary, or 1 element tuples, should be the same as their element type. That
is to say a single type in an unstructured tuple is a no-op.

Lastly, nested tuples are always flattened into to form a one deep tuple.
This means that `[bool, [char, int], float]` is resolved as
`[bool, char, int, float]`, with the internal structure of the tuple ignored.

The flatten into a large sequence rule mentioned above, is actually just an
application of this. Unstructured tuples can already be restructured, even
at the top level of an function call. This can be expressed by considering
the argument list as a tuple:

	call(false, ['a', -7], 3.14)
	call([false, ['a', -7], 3.14])
	call([false, 'a', -7, 3.14])
	call(false, 'a', -7, 3.14)

The ability to write nested tuples may remain so tuple deconstruction can be
used to name a slice of the tuple.

### Tuple Slicing (Range Tuple Indexing)

(Disclaimer: this is a bit more impulsive, see end for notes.)

This is an extension to tuple indexing. Currently, you may index single
location of a tuple, extracting the element at that location. By extending
the index expression to be a range we can grab a slice of the existing tuple
as another smaller tuple.

	[int_x, char_y] = [int_a, char_b, double_c].(0+~=1)

To get the new tuple, the range has to be constructed and traversed at
compile time. The size of the range is the size of the result tuple, with
each element in the result tuple decided by the matching element of the
range, which gives the index of the original tuple to place there.
The type of the indices may be and intergal type, but all indices must be in
range, otherwise it is a compile time error.

In terms of the existing range loops, if you could write this dynamically, it
would look something like this:

	// Implementation of: output = input.RANGE
	dyn output = []
	for ( index : RANGE ) { output = [output, input.index] }

The result of the expression is only has to be considered a tuple if the
range has two or more values, otherwise it can be considered void or the same
as indexing the single value in the range.

Some closing notes, this is dependent on generalised range expressions.
The iterators proposal has a section on some new range types, this feature
is intended to be built on that feature. Not simply reuse some of the syntax
that is also used in the special for loop. And compile-time evaluation may
need to be improved.

Implementation
--------------
An overview of the implementation details of the new proposal.

### Structured Tuple Implementation
Under the hood, unstructured tuples will probably just be implemented as
structured tuples, with the restructuring code inserted wherever needed.
In short, the base implementation should stay mostly the same.

Actually inlining tuples can be done in some cases, it may even help with
some forms like a fixed tuple decomposition. However, polymorphic tuples
still need to be reduced to a single generic form, which would be a
polymorphic container, a tuple.

### AST Updates
The current AST cannot represent all the new features. Particularly, an
object declaration cannot name elements of the tuple. To this end a new
node type, `TupleDecl`, should be added to handle tuple deconstruction
declarations (other cases can still be handled with `ObjectDecl`).

This would act much like a `FunctionDecl` except for tuples, narrowing the
possible types, to `TupleType` instances instead of `FunctionType` instances,
and storing some additonal information, in this case the names of the
elements of the tuples.

(I'm not actually going to decide the implementation now, but some early
examination of the problem suggests that it might be better off wrapping a
series of `ObjectDecl` rather than just some strings to hold the names.)

### Field Packs
Field packs in structures will probably have to be written out in full by
the specialization pass. If they are not it could have some negative effects
on layout, causing a structure to take up extra space. It may be able to
reuse some of the specialization code for the existing tuples.

Related Features in Other Languages
-----------------------------------
Other languages have similar features. Organized by the related feature.

(In hindsight, I may have gone overboard with the number of examples.)

### Structured Tuples

There are many languages with structured tuples. Usually just called tuples,
but they usually follow the same rules as a polymorphic anonymous structures,
that is to say you provide N types to create a new N-arity tuple. They also
usually have some special syntax to index the tuples, because there are no
field names to use.

#### Rust
Rust has the standard tuples as a primitive in the language. Each arity of
tuple is a different polymorphic type.

Tuple types and expressions are written with a parenthesized, comma seperated
list of types or expressions. To avoid confusion with the grouping "(...)",
one element tuples must have a trailing comma (and larger tuples may have a
trailing comma).

	const empty: () = ();
	const single: (usize,) = (12,)
	const double: (usize, isize) = (34, -56);

Element access uses similar syntax to field access (that is "."), but uses an
interger literal instead of a field name (for example: "pair.1"). Tuples
support pattern matching with similar syntax to their expression form.

Some tuple features only apply up to 12-arity tuples.
It is not directly stated, but I believe the difference is the more limited
features are implemented in the standard library, for each arity of tuple.

-   https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/primitive.tuple.html
-   https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/types/tuple.html
-   https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/expressions/tuple-expr.html

#### C++
Implemented as a template type defined in the standard library. No special
language features exist to support this, due to the power of C++'s template
meta-programming.

C++ is also one of the few languages with support for varadic polymorphic
types, so there is one template that defines all the types. It is written
as `std::tuple<TYPE...>`, where "TYPE..." is any number of comma separated
types. This is the standard notation for template type instances.

There is no special syntax for member access of a tuple. You have to use a
template function for example `std::get<0>( tuple )`.

C++ also has structured binding, a kind of limited pattern matching. In a
structured binding declaration, you can write an auto typed declaration with
a list of identifiers in a `[]` list.
For example, `auto [first, second] = getSize2Tuple();`.

-   https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/utility/tuple
-   https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/structured_binding

#### Haskell
Haskell has a special syntax for tuples, but otherwise they are completely
normal polymorphic types. Because of this, tuples have a maximum size.
Haskell (98) supports tuples of up to 15 elements and the standard library
has functions for tuples of up to 7 elements.

The syntax for tuples is a comma seperated list of elements. Either element
types to create a tuple type, or element values to create a tuple value. The
context decides which one we are looking for. Such as `(6, "six")` or
`(Bool, Char, Int)`.

You can also remove all the elements, getting an expression like "(,)" or
"(,,,)", which can be then be used as a function, for a type or expression.

Haskell supports pattern matching as the main way to extract values from a
tuple, although helper functions "fst" and "snd" are provided for field
access on two element tuples.

Haskell does not have 0 or 1-element tuples. The nil type, written "()" for
both type and value, is effectively the 0 element tuple. There is also a type
called "Solo" that is a polymorphic structure with one field and is used as
the 1-element tuple, but has regular Haskell data type syntax.

-   https://www.haskell.org/onlinereport/basic.html

#### OCaml
OCaml only supports multi-element (2 or more) tuples. Tuple types are written
as a '*' separated list of types, tuple values are written as ',' separated
list of expressions. Pattern matching tuples is supported and uses the same
syntax as values. Parenthesizing these lists is only needed for grouping.

OCaml does not support 0 or 1 element tuples. It does however have the `unit`
type which has one value written `()`.

-   https://ocaml.org/docs/basic-data-types#tuples

#### Swift
Swift has tuple types that use the basic parenthesized list of comma
separated list of types or values. It only supports 0 and 2 or more element
tuples (the `Void` type is an alias for the empty tuple type).

Swift also supports named tuples. Names can be added to before the tuple
element, both for the tuple type and value. The syntax is a name followed by
a colon, for example `(first: int, second: int)`. These names are a fixed
part of the type, and can be used as part of field access notation (otherwise
numbers are used in-place of field names `tuple.0` vs. `tuple.first`).

-   https://docs.swift.org/swift-book/documentation/the-swift-programming-language/types/#Tuple-Type

#### Python
In Python tuples are immutable lists. Because they are dynamically typed
there is only one tuple type `tuple`.

It also has various named tuples. The first, namedtuple, just allows you to
add a name the elements of the tuple. The second, NamedTuple, is actually a
way of creating a typed record in a normally untyped language.

-   https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#sequence-types-list-tuple-range
-   https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple
-   https://docs.python.org/3/library/typing.html#typing.NamedTuple

#### LISP
As LISP is dynamically typed, its cons data type is an untyped pair and is
(perhaps infamously) the main constructor of all compound data types.
The function `cons` takes two arguments and builds a pair. Functions `car`
and `cdr` get the first and second elements of the pair.

### Packs

Packs (or unstructures tuples) are a much less common feature. In fact, there
might just be one language, C++, that supports packs. The most common use
case for unstructured tuples is returning multiple values, so there is a
comparison to languages that have that as a special feature.

#### Go
Go does not have built in tuple types, but it has multi-return syntax that
looks like the tuple syntax of many other languages.

```
func main() {
	i, j := returnIntInt()
	...
}

func returnIntInt() (int, int) {
	return 12, 34
}
```

-   https://golangdocs.com/functions-in-golang
-   https://go.dev/src/go/types/tuple.go

#### Lua
Lua is a scripting languague, is dynamically typed and stack based. Although
the stack usually only directly visible in the C-API, it does allow any
function to return any number of values. Even in a single return, if the
return expression

```
local funcion f()
	return 12, 34
end

local i, j = f()
```

#### C++
C++ templates can take various types of parameters, including parameter
packs. These contain series of values. These are used in pack expansion,
which usually expand to a comma separated list, but it can also be a chain of
boolean binary operator applications. For example, if the parameter
`typename... Ts` is in scope, then you can declare `std::tuple<Ts...>` to
introduce a tuple type, if Ts = bool, char, int then the type becomes
`std::tuple<bool, char, int>`.

A common use is for perfect argument forwarding, which shows some different
uses of the pattern:

```
template<typename inner_t>
class Outer {
	inner_t inner;
public:
	template<typename... Args>
	Outer(Args&&... args) : inner(std::foward<Args>(args)...) {}
};
```

In the first application, `Args&&... args` both uses a pack and introduces
another one. `Arg0&& arg0, Arg1&& arg1, Arg2&& arg2, ...` is the pattern
it explands too. The `&&` is used to copy the argument type's reference
qualifier (the default can strip references away).

The second application, `std::forward<Args>(args)...` uses two packs. These
are expanded in parellel, and must be the same length (in this case they
always will be). It also helps show that the `...` is actually the bit doing
the expansion, it is a suffix "operator" to the expansion pattern.

There are also fold expressions that use binary operators to combine a pack
into a single expression. For example, `args + ... + 0` which adds every
element of the `args` pack together.

C++ about the best you could ask for in this area, but it does a lot of work
at compile time to make this happen.

-   https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/template_parameters
-   https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/parameter_pack
-   https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/fold